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CHAPTER Ⅰ EVOLUTION AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM13

General Considerations13

Functional Factors in Neural Differentiation14

Beginnings of the Nervous System17

The Nervous System of Worms19

The Nervous System of Arthropods21

General Plan of the Vertebrate Nervous System21

The Spinal Cord22

The Brain23

Dogfish23

Other Fishes28

Amphibians28

Reptiles28

Birds31

Mammals32

Comparative Size and Weight of the Brain34

CHAPTER Ⅱ ORIGIN AND DIFFERENTIATION OF THE NEURAL TUBE37

The Neural Tube37

The Neural Crests38

Differentiation in the Neural Tube39

Early Development of the Brain40

Derivatives of the Five Divisions of the Brain41

CHAPTER Ⅲ TOPOGRAPHY OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM47

The Spinal Cord47

Form and Relationships47

Longitudinal Furrows48

Nerve Roots51

Funiculi52

The Medulla Oblongata53

Form and Relationships53

Longitudinal Furrows53

Surface Areas53

The Pons56

Form and Relationships56

Anterior Surface57

Posterior Surface57

The Fourth Ventricle57

Form and Relationships57

Fossa Rhomboidea58

The Cerebellum59

Form and Relationships59

The Isthmus60

The Mid-brain61

Lamina Quadrigemina61

Pedunculi Cerebri62

The Fore-brain63

Form and Relationships63

Basis Cerebri63

Pallium63

CHAPTER Ⅳ THE CEREBROSPINAL PATHWAY69

The Meninges69

The Dura Mater69

The Arachnoid69

The Pia Mater70

The Cerebrospinal Fluid71

CHAPTER Ⅴ MORPHOLOGY OF THE NERVE CELLS75

Histogenesis of the Nerve Cells75

The Neuron78

General Morphology78

Axon Sheaths81

Internal Structure82

The Neuron Theory85

The Synapse85

Dynamic Polarization87

Axon Degeneration and Regeneration88

CHAPTER Ⅵ INTERSTITIAL TISSUE OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM91

The Neuroglia91

The Microglia93

The Ependyma94

The Functions of the Interstitial Tissue94

CHAPTER Ⅶ MYELINIZATION97

Myelin97

Morphology of Myelin Sheaths97

Relationships of Neurilemma and Neuroglia Cells to Myelin Sheaths98

Origin of Myelin99

Time and Sequence of Myelinization100

Cerebrospinal Nerves101

Ascending and Descending Fiber Tracts102

Connecting Fibers103

Myelinization and Function103

CHAPTER Ⅷ NERVOUS INTEGRATION105

Reflex Circuits105

Central Conduction Pathways107

Neuron Patterns109

Receptors110

Definition and Classification110

Morphology111

Neuro-effector Connections115

Motor End-plates116

Visceral Efferent Terminations116

CHAPTER Ⅸ THE CEREBROSPINAL NERVES120

Definition120

The Spinal Nerves120

The Cranial Nerves125

Functional Classification of Cerebrospinal Nerve Components126

The Cerebrospinal Ganglia128

CHAPTER Ⅹ INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE SPINAL CORD132

The Constituent Tissues132

Gray Matter134

Topography134

Arrangement of Nerve Cells136

White Matter141

Regional Characteristics of the Spinal Cord142

Spinal Integrating Mechanisms143

Primary Motor Neurons and Their Connections144

CHAPTER Ⅺ PERIPHERAL AND CENTRAL SPINAL CONDUCTION PATHWAYS148

Spinal Fasciculi148

Intramedullary Courses of the Posterior Root Fibers148

Functional Specificity of Posterior Root Fibers150

Ascending Fiber Tracts152

Proprioceptive152

Exteroceptive154

Fasciculi Proprii158

Descending Fiber Tracts160

Corticospinal Tracts160

Rubrospinal Tracts162

Tectospinal Tracts162

Vestibulospinal Tracts162

Reticulospinal Tracts162

Bulbospinal Tract163

Fiber Tract Degeneration163

CHAPTER Ⅻ THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA167

General Morphology167

Constituent Tissues167

Lower Cranial Nerves and Their Central Connections167

Distribution of Gray and White Matter168

The Pyramids and the Corticospinal Decussation171

Intrinsic Structure173

Nucleus Gracilis and Nucleus Cuneatus173

The Medial Lemniscus and Its Decussation173

The Trigeminospinal Tract and the Trigeminal Lemniscus175

The Dorsal Tegmental Tract175

The Arcuate Fibers175

The Olivary Nuclei176

The Restiform Body177

The Reticular Formation178

The Nuclei of the Cranial Nerves180

CHAPTER ⅩⅢ THE PONS185

Tegmental Portion185

Vestibular Nuclei186

Cochlear Nuclei186

The Trapezoid Body and the Lateral Lemniscus187

The Nucleus of the Facial Nerve190

The Nucleus of the Abducens Nerve190

The Superior Olivary Nucleus190

Nuclei of the Trigeminal Nerve191

The Locus Caeruleus192

Other Reticular Nuclei192

The Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus192

The Medial Lemniscus194

The Brachium Conjunctivum194

Basilar Portion195

CHAPTER ⅩⅣ THE MESENCEPHALON198

The Tectum199

Inferior Colliculus199

Superior Colliculus201

The Tegmentum202

Central Gray Stratum203

Minor Tegmental Nuclei204

Brachia Conjunctiva205

Red Nucleus206

Tegmental Decussations207

Substantia Nigra207

Basis Pedunculi208

CHAPTER ⅩⅤ LONG CONDUCTION PATHWAYS210

Definition and Classification210

Ascending Conduction Pathways210

Proprioceptive210

Exteroceptive213

Descending Conduction Pathways215

The Corticospinal and Corticobulbar Tracts215

The Rubrospinal Tract217

The Rubrocervical Tract217

The Tectospinal Tracts217

The Vestibulospinal Tract218

The Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus218

The Reticulospinal Tracts220

Sequence of Myelinization220

Ascending Tracts220

Descending Tracts221

Summary of Long Conduction Pathways222

CHAPTER ⅩⅥ CENTRAL CONNECTIONS OF THE CRANIAL NERVES CONNECTED WITH THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA，PONS AND MESENCEPHALON225

Functional Classification of Neurons225

Nuclear Columns225

The Somatic Efferent Column225

The Special Visceral Efferent Column226

The General Visceral Efferent Column227

The Visceral Afferent Column228

The General Somatic Afferent Column228

The Special Somatic Afferent Nuclei229

Central Connections of the Cranial Nerves229

The Hypoglossal Nerve229

The Accessory Nerve229

The Vagus and Glossopharyngeal Nerves231

The Acoustic Nerve232

The Facial Nerve235

The Abducens Nerve237

The Trigeminal Nerve238

The Trochlear Nerve240

The Oculomotor Nerve240

Summary of Components，Central Connections and Distribution of Cranial Nerves242

CHAPTER ⅩⅦ THE CEREBELLUM245

Development245

Anatomy247

Topography247

Plan of Organization249

Arrangement of the Gray and White Matter251

Histological Structure of the Cortex252

The Cerebellar Nuclei256

The White Matter258

Cerebellar Peduncles258

Functional Relationships263

Older Theories263

Synergia264

Localization265

CHAPTER ⅩⅧ THE DIENCEPHALON271

Position and Relationships271

The Third Ventricle273

Anatomic Subdivisions274

Epithalamus274

Dorsal Thalamus276

Ventral Thalamus280

Hypothalamus281

Functional Relationships288

CHAPTER ⅩⅨ THE VISUAL APPARATUS295

Retina and Optic Nerve Development295

Structure295

The Optic Tracts and Their Central Connections298

The Optic Radiation300

Projection of the Retina Upon the Cerebral Cortex301

Significance of Partial Optic Decussation303

CHAPTER ⅩⅩ THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM305

Definition305

Ontogeny306

Structure and Relationships309

Sympathetic Trunks309

Prevertebral Plexuses312

Enteric Plexuses312

Intrinsic Plexuses of Pelvic Organs313

Cephalic Sympathetic Plexuses313

Cephalic Autonomic Ganglia313

Ratio of Preganglionic Neurons to Ganglion Cells314

Central Autonomic Centers and Conduction Pathways314

Spinal Centers314

Autonomic Centers in the Medulla Oblongata and Mesencephalon314

Autonomic Centers in the Diencephalon315

Cortical Connections with Autonomic Centers315

Autonomic Conduction Pathways316

General Physiology317

Functional Significance of Ganglionic Neurons317

Chemical Mediation of Nerve Impulses317

Afferent Neurons Functionally Associated with the Autonomic System318

Antagonistic Action of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nerves319

Functional Interrelationships of the Autonomic System and the Endocrine Glands320

Regulation of Autonomic Functions Through Centers in the Brain Stem321

Cortical Regulation of Autonomic Functions322

Summary of the Chief Peripheral Autonomic Conduction Pathways323

CHAPTER ⅩⅪ THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES： GENERAL MORPHOLOGY326

Phylogenetio Considerations326

Ontogeny326

Cerebral Evagination326

Rhinencephalon327

Corpus Striatum and Cortex329

The Chorioid Fissure and the Chorioid Plexus332

Hippocampal Formation332

Cerebral Commissures333

Surface Anatomy335

Cerebral Fissures335

Cerebral Lobes338

CHAPTER ⅩⅫ THE OLFACTORY APPARATUS346

Olfactory Epithelium346

Olfactory Nerve347

Olfactory Bulb348

Nervus Terminalis348

The Olfactory Tract349

Hippocampal and Striatal Connections349

Olfactory Reflex Connections351

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅢ THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES： INTERNAL STRUCTURE355

Lateral Ventricles355

Form and Relationships355

Basal Ganglia358

The Caudate Nucleus358

The Lentiform Nucleus358

The Amygdaloid Nucleus360

The External Capsule362

The Claustrum362

Anatomic Relationships363

Striatal Connections366

Functional Relationships369

Projection Fibers370

The Internal Capsule370

Corona Radiata372

Thalamic Radiation372

Cerebral Commissures372

The Hippocampal Commissure372

The Anterior Commissure372

The Corpus Callosum373

Association Fibers374

The Cingulum375

The Uncinate Fasciculus375

The Superior Longitudinal Fasciculus375

The Inferior Longitudinal Fasciculus375

The Occipitofrontal Fasciculus375

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅣ STRUCTURE OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX379

General Morphology379

Relationships and Components379

Cortical Neurons379

The Pyramidal Cells379

The Polymorphic Cells379

The Granule Cells380

The Horizontal Cells of Cajal380

The Cells of Martinotti380

Special Cortical Neurons380

Nerve Fibers381

Cortical Layers382

Intracortical Connections385

Cortical Areas388

Cytoarchitectural Types390

Projection Areas394

Efferent Projection Areas395

Afferent Projection Areas398

Association Areas400

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅤ FUNCTIONS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX403

Primary Sensory and Motor Functions403

Functional Significance of Cortical Layers404

Are the Higher Cortical Functions Localizable？404

Functional Localization in the Frontal Lobe405

Sensory Localization407

Association Areas408

Aphasia409

Apraxia and Agnosia410

Localization411

Unilateral Cerebral Dominance413

Cortical Reinforcement and Inhibition418

Higher Cortical Functions419

Essential Cortical Differences Between Man and the Lower Animals420

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅥ LABORATORY OUTLINE426

Methods of Study426

Nervous System and Sense Organs of the Dogfish427

The Mammalian Nervous System432

The Fetal Nervous System432

The Adult Nervous System433

General Inspection of the Human Brain435

The Spinal Cord441

The Brain Stem442

Reconstruction of the Chief Conduction Systems446

The Fore-brain447

Clinical Illustrations451

General Neu rological Literature461