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Chapter 1 The First Aeronautical Engineers1

1.1 Introduction1

1.2 Very Early Developments3

1.3 Sir George Cayley （1773-1857）—The True Inventor of the Airplane6

1.4 The Interregnum—From 1853 to 189113

1.5 Otto Lilienthal （1848-1896）—The Glider Man17

1.6 Percy Pilcher （1867-1899）—Extending The Glider Tradition20

1.7 Aeronautics Comes to America21

1.8 Wilbur （1867-1912） and Orville （1871-1948） Wright—Inventors of the First Practical Airplane26

1.9 The Aeronautical Triangle—Langley，The Wrights，and Glenn Curtiss35

1.10 The Problem of Propulsion44

1.11 Faster and Higher45

1.12 Summary and Review48

Bibliography51

Chapter 2 Fundamental Thoughts53

2.1 Fundamental Physical Quantities of a Flowing Gas57

2.1.1 Pressure57

2.1.2 Density58

2.1.3 Temperature59

2.1.4 Flow Velocity and Streamlines60

2.2 The Source of All Aerodynamic Forces62

2.3 Equation of State for a Perfect Gas64

2.4 Discussion of Units66

2.5 Specific Volume71

2.6 Anatomy of the Airplane82

2.7 Anatomy of a Space Vehicle92

2.8 Historical Note：The NACA and NASA101

2.9 Summary and Review104

Bibliography105

Problems106

Chapter 3 The Standard Atmosphere110

3.1 Definition of Altitude112

3.2 Hydrostatic Equation113

3.3 Relation Between Geopotential and Geometric Altitudes115

3.4 Definition of the Standard Atmosphere116

3.5 Pressure，Temperature，and Density Altitudes125

3.6 Historical Note：The Standard Atmosphere128

3.7 Summary and Review130

Bibliography132

Problems132

Chapter 4 Basic Aerodynamics134

4.1 Continuity Equation138

4.2 Incompressible and Compressible Flow139

4.3 Momentum Equation142

4.4 A Comment146

4.5 Elementary Thermodynamics153

4.6 Isentropic Flow160

4.7 Energy Equation166

4.8 Summary of Equations173

4.9 Speed of Sound174

4.10 Low-Speed Subsonic Wind Tunnels182

4.11 Measurement of Airspeed188

4.11.1 Incompressible Flow191

4.11.2 Subsonic Compressible Flow197

4.11.3 Supersonic Flow205

4.11.4 Summary210

4.12 Some Additional Considerations210

4.12.1 More about Compressible Flow211

4.12.2 More about Equivalent Airspeed213

4.13 Supersonic Wind Tunnels and Rocket Engines214

4.14 Discussion of Compressibility226

4.15 Introduction to Viscous Flow227

4.16 Results for a Laminar Boundary Layer236

4.17 Results for a Turbulent Boundary Layer241

4.18 Compressibility Effects on Skin Friction244

4.19 Transition247

4.20 Flow Separation250

4.21 Summary of Viscous Effects on Drag255

4.22 Historical Note：Bernoulli and Euler257

4.23 Historical Note：The Pitot Tube258

4.24 Historical Note：The First Wind Tunnels261

4.25 Historical Note：Osborne Reynolds and his Number267

4.26 Historical Note：Prandtl and the Development of the Boundary Layer Concept271

4.27 Summary and Review274

Bibliography278

Problems279

Chapter 5 Airfoils，Wings，and Other Aerodynamic Shapes288

5.1 Introduction288

5.2 Airfoil Nomenclature290

5.3 Lift，Drag，and Moment Coefficients294

5.4 Airfoil Data300

5.5 Infinite versus Finite Wings315

5.6 Pressure Coefficient316

5.7 Obtaining Lift Coefficient from Cp322

5.8 Compressibility Correction for Lift Coefficient326

5.9 Critical Mach Number and Critical Pressure Coefficient327

5.10 Drag-Divergence Mach Number339

5.11 Wave Drag （At Supersonic Speeds）347

5.12 Summary of Airfoil Drag357

5.13 Finite Wings359

5.14 Calculation of Induced Drag363

5.15 Change in the Lift Slope372

5.16 Swept Wings381

5.17 Flaps—A Mechanism for High Lift394

5.18 Aerodynamics of Cylinders and Spheres400

5.19 How Lift is Produced—Some Alternative Explanations405

5.20 Historical Note：Airfoils and Wings415

5.20.1 The Wright Brothers416

5.20.2 British and U.S.Airfoils （1910-1920）417

5.20.3 1920-1930418

5.20.4 Early NACA Four-Digit Airfoils418

5.20.5 Later NACA Airfoils419

5.20.6 Modern Airfoil Work419

5.20.7 Finite Wings420

5.21 Historical Note：Ernst Mach and his Number422

5.22 Historical Note：The First Manned Supersonic Flight426

5.23 Historical Note：The X-15—First Manned Hypersonic Airplane and Stepping-Stone to the Space Shuttle430

5.24 Summary and Review432

Bibliography434

Problems435

Chapter 6 Elements of Airplane Performance441

6.1 Introduction：The Drag Polar441

6.2 Equations of Motion448

6.3 Thrust Required for Level，Unaccelerated Flight450

6.4 Thrust Available and Maximum Velocity458

6.5 Power Required for Level，Unaccelerated Flight461

6.6 Power Available and Maximum Velocity466

6.6.1 Reciprocating Engine-Propeller Combination466

6.6.2 Jet Engine468

6.7 Altitude Effects on Power Required and Available470

6.8 Rate of Climb479

6.9 Gliding Flight489

6.10 Absolute and Service Ceilings493

6.11 Time to Climb499

6.12 Range and Endurance：Propeller-Driven Airplane500

6.12.1 Physical Considerations501

6.12.2 Quantitative Formulation502

6.12.3 Breguet Formulas （Propeller-Driven Airplane）504

6.13 Range and Endurance：Jet Airplane508

6.13.1 Physical Considerations509

6.13.2 Quantitative Formulation510

6.14 Relations Between CD.0 and CD，i514

6.15 Takeoff Performance522

6.16 Landing Performance528

6.17 Turning Flight and the V-n Diagram531

6.18 Accelerated Rate of Climb （Energy Method）540

6.19 Special Considerations for Supersonic Airplanes547

6.20 Uninhabited Aerial Vehicles （UAVs）550

6.21 Micro Air Vehicles560

6.22 Quest for Aerodynamic Efficiency563

6.22.1 Measure of Aerodynamic Efficiency563

6.22.2 What Dictates the Value of L/D？564

6.22.3 Sources of Aerodynamic Drag； Drag Reduction564

6.22.4 Some Innovative Aircraft Configurations for High L/D569

6.23 A Comment571

6.24 Historical Note：Drag Reduction—The NACA Cowling and the Fillet572

6.25 Historical Note：Early Predictions of Airplane Performance576

6.26 Historical Note：Breguet and the Range Formula578

6.27 Historical Note：Aircraft Design—Evolution and Revolution579

6.28 Summary and Review584

Bibliography588

Problems588

Chapter 7 Principles of Stability and Control594

7.1 Introduction594

7.2 Definition of Stability and Control600

7.2.1 Static Stability601

7.2.2 Dynamic Stability602

7.2.3 Control604

7.2.4 Partial Derivative604

7.3 Moments on the Airplane605

7.4 Absolute Angle of Attack606

7.5 Criteria for Longitudinal Static Stability608

7.6 Quantitative Discussion：Contribution of the Wing to Mcg613

7.7 Contribution of the Tail to Mcg617

7.8 Total Pitching Moment About the Center of Gravity620

7.9 Equations for Longitudinal Static Stability622

7.10 Neutral Point624

7.11 Static Margin625

7.12 Concept of Static Longitudinal Control629

7.13 Calculation of Elevator Angle to Trim634

7.14 Stick-Fixed Versus Stick-Free Static Stability636

7.15 Elevator Hinge Moment637

7.16 Stick-Free Longitudinal Static Stability639

7.17 Directional Static Stability643

7.18 Lateral Static Stability644

7.19 A Comment646

7.20 Historical Note：The Wright Brothers Versus the European Philosophy of Stability and Control647

7.21 Historical Note：The Development of Flight Controls648

7.22 Historical Note：The “Tuck-Under”Problem650

7.23 Summary and Review651

Bibliography653

Problems653

Chapter 8 Space Flight （Astronautics）655

8.1 Introduction655

8.2 Differential Equations662

8.3 Lagrange’s Equation663

8.4 Orbit Equation666

8.4.1 Force and Energy666

8.4.2 Equation of Motion668

8.5 Space Vehicle Trajectories—Some Basic Aspects672

8.6 Kepler’s Laws679

8.7 An Application：The Voyager Spacecraft—Their Design，Flight Trajectories，and Historical Significance683

8.8 Introduction to Earth and Planetary Entry687

8.9 Exponential Atmosphere690

8.10 General Equations of Motion for Atmospheric Entry690

8.11 Application to Ballistic Entry694

8.12 Entry Heating700

8.13 Lifting Entry，with Application to the Space Shuttle708

8.14 Historical Note：Kepler712

8.15 Historical Note：Newton and the Law of Gravitation714

8.16 Historical Note：Lagrange716

8.17 Historical Note：Unmanned Space Flight716

8.18 Historical Note：Manned Space Flight721

8.19 Summary and Review723

Bibliography725

Problems725

Chapter 9 Propulsion728

9.1 Introduction728

9.2 Propeller731

9.3 Reciprocating Engine738

9.4 Jet Propulsion—The Thrust Equation749

9.5 Turbojet Engine752

9.5.1 Thrust Buildup for a Turbojet Engine757

9.6 Turbofan Engine763

9.7 Ramjet Engine765

9.8 Rocket Engine769

9.9 Rocket Propellants—Some Considerations776

9.9.1 Liquid Propellants776

9.9.2 Solid Propellants779

9.9.3 A Comment781

9.10 Rocket Equation782

9.11 Rocket Staging783

9.12 Quest for Engine Efficiency787

9.12.1 Propulsive Efficiency788

9.12.2 The Green Engine791

9.13 Electric Propulsion792

9.13.1 Electron-Ion Thruster792

9.13.2 Magnetoplasmadynamic Thruster793

9.13.3 Arc-Jet Thruster793

9.13.4 A Comment794

9.14 Historical Note：Early Propeller Development795

9.15 Historical Note：Early Development of the Internal Combustion Engine for Aviation797

9.16 Historical Note：Inventors of Early Jet Engines800

9.17 Historical Note：Early History of Rocket Engines803

9.18 Summary and Review809

Bibliography810

Problems811

Chapter 10 Hypersonic Vehicles815

10.1 Introduction815

10.2 Physical Aspects of Hypersonic Flow819

10.2.1 Thin Shock Layers819

10.2.2 Entropy Layer820

10.2.3 Viscous Interaction821

10.2.4 High-Temperature Effects822

10.2.5 Low-Density Flow823

10.2.6 Recapitulation827

10.3 Newtonian Law for Hypersonic Flow827

10.4 Some Comments About Hypersonic- Airplanes833

10.5 Summary and Review844

Bibliography845

Problems845

Appendix A：Standard Atmosphere，SI Units847

Appendix B：Standard Atmosphere，EnglishEngineering Units857

Appendix C：Symbols and Conversion Factors865

Appendix D：Airfoil Data866

Answer Key895

Index899