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Chapter 1 Overview1

1.1 History of UNIX2

1.2 Standards and Common Interfaces4

1.3 Free Software and Open Source5

1.4 A Quick Survey of Linux Distributions5

1.4.1 Debian6

1.4.2 Red Hat/Fedora6

1.4.3 Mandriva7

1.4.4 SUSE7

1.4.5 Gentoo7

1.4.6 Yellow Dog7

1.4.7 Other Distros8

1.5 Kernel Release Information8

1.6 Linux on Power8

1.7 What Is an Operating System?9

1.8 Kernel Organization11

1.9 Overview of the Linux Kernel11

1.9.1 User Interface12

1.9.2 User Identification13

1.9.3 Files and Filesystems13

1.9.4 Processes20

1.9.5 System Calls24

1.9.6 Linux Scheduler24

1.9.7 Linux Device Drivers25

1.10 Portability and Architecture Dependence26

Summary27

Exercises27

Chapter 2 Exploration Toolkit29

2.1 Common Kernel Datatypes30

2.1.1 Linked Lists30

2.1.2 Searching34

2.1.3 Trees35

2.2 Assembly38

2.2.1 PowerPC39

2.2.2 x8642

2.3 Assembly Language Example46

2.3.1 x86 Assembly Example47

2.3.2 PowerPC Assembly Example50

2.4 Inline Assembly55

2.4.1 Ouput Operands55

2.4.2 Input Operands56

2.4.3 Clobbered Registers(or Clobber List)56

2.4.4 Parameter Numbering56

2.4.5 Constraints56

2.4.6 asm57

2.4.7 __volatile__57

2.5 Quirky C Language Usage62

2.5.1 asmlinkage62

2.5.2 UL63

2.5.3 inline63

2.5.4 const and volatile64

2.6 A Quick Tour of Kernel Exploration Tools65

2.6.1 objdump/readelf65

2.6.2 hexdump66

2.6.3 nm66

2.6.4 objcopy67

2.6.5 ar67

2.7 Kernel Speak:Listening to Kernel Messages67

2.7.1 printk()67

2.7.2 dmesg68

2.7.3 /var/log/messages68

2.8 Miscellaneous Quirks68

2.8.1 __init68

2.8.2 likely() and unlikely()69

2.8.3 IS_ERRand PTR ERR71

2.8.4 Notifier Chains71

Summary71

Project:Hellomod72

Step 1:Writing the Linux Module Skeleton72

Step 2:Compiling the Module74

Step 3:Running the Code75

Exercises76

Chapter 3 Processes:The Principal Model of Execution77

3.1 Introducing Our Program80

3.2 Process Descriptor82

3.2.1 Process Attribute-Related Fields84

3.2.2 Scheduling Related Fields87

3.2.3 Process Relations-Related Fields90

3.2.4 Process Credentials-Related Fields92

3.2.5 Process Capabilities-Related Fields94

3.2.6 Process Limitations-Related Fields97

3.2.7 Filesystem- and Address Space-Related Fields99

3.3 Process Creation:fork(),vfork(),and clone() System Calls101

3.3.1 fork() Function103

3.3.2 vfork() Function104

3.3.3 clone() Function105

3.3.4 do_fork() Function106

3.4 Process Lifespan109

3.4.1 Process States109

3.4.2 Process State Transitions111

3.5 Process Termination116

3.5.1 sys_exit()Function117

3.5.2 do_exit()Function117

3.5.3 Parent Notification and sys_wait4()120

3.6 Keeping Track of Processes:Basic Scheduler Construction124

3.6.1 Basic Structure125

3.6.2 Waking Up From Waiting or Activation126

3.7 Wait Queues133

3.7.1 Adding to the Wait Queue136

3.7.2 Waiting on the Event137

3.7.3 Waking Up140

3.8 Asynchronous Execution Flow142

3.8.1 Exceptions143

3.8.2 Interrupts146

Summary173

Project:current System Variable174

Project Source Code175

Running the Code177

Exercises177

Chapter 4 Memory Management179

4.1 Pages183

4.1.1 flags184

4.2 Memory Zones187

4.2.1 Memory Zone Descriptor187

4.2.2 Memory Zone Helper Functions190

4.3 Page Frames191

4.3.1 Functions for Requesting Page Frames191

4.3.2 Functions for Releasing Page Frames193

4.3.3 Buddy System194

4.4 Slab Allocator200

4.4.1 Cache Descriptor203

4.4.2 General Purpose Cache Descriptor207

4.4.3 Slab Descriptor208

4.5 Slab Allocator's Lifecycle211

4.5.1 Global Variables of the Slab Allocator211

4.5.2 Creating a Cache213

4.5.3 Slab Creation and cache_grow()219

4.5.4 Slab Destruction:Returning Memory and kmem_cache_destroy()222

4.6 Memory Request Path224

4.6.1 kmalloc()224

4.6.2 kmem_cache_alloc()225

4.7 Linux Process Memory Structures226

4.7.1 mm_struct227

4.7.2 vm_area_struct230

4.8 Process Image Layout and Linear Address Space232

4.9 Page Tables236

4.10 Page Fault237

4.10.1 x86 Page Fault Exception238

4.10.2 Page Fault Handler239

4.10.3 PowerPC Page Fault Exception249

Summary249

Project:Process Memory Map250

Exercises251

Chapter 5 Input/Output253

5.1 How Hardware Does It:Busses,Bridges,Ports,and Interfaces255

5.2 Devices260

5.2.1 Block Device Overview260

5.2.2 Request Queues and Scheduling I/O263

5.2.3 Example:"Generic" Block Driver274

5.2.4 Device Operations277

5.2.5 Character Device Overview279

5.2.6 A Note on Network Devices280

5.2.7 Clock Devices280

5.2.8 Terminal Devices280

5.2.9 Direct Memory Access(DMA)281

Summary281

Project:Building a Parallel Port Driver282

Parallel Port Hardware282

Parallel Port Software285

Exercises293

Chapter 6 Filesystems295

6.1 General Filesystem Concepts296

6.1.1 File and Filenames296

6.1.2 File Types297

6.1.3 Additional File Attributes298

6.1.4 Directories and Pathnarnes298

6.1.5 File Operations299

6.1.6 File Descriptors300

6.1.7 Disk Blocks,Partitions,and Implementation301

6.1.8 Performance302

6.2 Linux Virtual Filesystem302

6.2.1 VFS Data Structures305

6.2.2 Global and Local List References322

6.3 Structures Associated with VFS324

6.3.1 fs_struct Structure324

6.3.2 files_struct Structure326

6.4 Page Cache330

6.4.1 address_space Structure331

6.4.2 Buffer_head Structure334

6.5 VFS System Calls and the Filesystem Layer336

6.5.1 open()337

6.5.2 close()345

6.5.3 read()348

6.5.4 write()369

Summary371

Exercises372

Chapter 7 Scheduling and Kernel Synchronization373

7.1 Linux Scheduler375

7.1.1 Choosing the Next Task376

7.1.2 Context Switch383

7.1.3 Yielding the CPU394

7.2 Preemption405

7.2.1 Explicit Kernel Preemption405

7.2.2 Implicit User Preemption405

7.2.3 Implicit Kernel Preemption407

7.3 Spinlocks and Semaphores409

7.4 System Clock:Of Time and Timers411

7.4.1 Real-Time Clock:What Time Is It?412

7.4.2 Reading the PPC Real-Time Clock414

7.4.3 Reading the x86 Real-Time Clock417

Summary418

Exercises419

Chapter 8 Booting the Kernel421

8.1 BIOS and Open Firmware423

8.2 Boot Loaders424

8.2.1 GRUB426

8.2.2 LILO429

8.2.3 PowerPC and Yaboot430

8.3 Architecture-Dependent Memory Initialization431

8.3.1 PowerPC Hardware Memory Management431

8.3.2 x86 Intel-Based Hardware Memory Management444

8.3.3 PowerPC and x86 Code Convergence455

8.4 Initial RAM Disk456

8.5 The Beginning:start_kernel()456

8.5.1 The Call to lock_kernel()458

8.5.2 The Call to page_address_init()460

8.5.3 The Call to printk(linux_banner)464

8.5.4 The Call to setup_arch464

8.5.5 The Call to setup_per_cpu_areas()469

8.5.6 The Call to smp_prepare_boot_cpu()470

8.5.7 The Call to sched_init()471

8.5.8 The Call to build_all_zonelists()474

8.5.9 The Call to page_alloc_init475

8.5.10 The Call to parse_args()476

8.5.11 The Call to trap_init()479

8.5.12 The Call to rcu_init()479

8.5.13 The Call to init_IRQ()480

8.5.14 The Call to softirq_init()481

8.5.15 The Call to time_init()482

8.5.16 The Call to console_init()484

8.5.17 The Call to profile_init()485

8.5.18 The Call to local_irq_enable()485

8.5.19 initrd Configuration486

8.5.20 The Call to mem_init()486

8.5.21 The Call to late_time_init()493

8.5.22 The Call to calibrate_delay()494

8.5.23 The Call to pgtable_cache_init()495

8.5.24 The Call to buffer_init()497

8.5.25 The Call to security_scaffolding_startup()497

8.5.26 The Call to vfs_caches_init()498

8.5.27 The Call to radix_tree_init()508

8.5.28 The Call to signals_init()509

8.5.29 The Call to page_writeback_init()509

8.5.30 TheCall to proc_root_init()512

8.5.31 The Call to init_idle()514

8.5.32 The Call to rest_init()515

8.6 The initThread(or Process 1)517

Summary522

Exercises523

Chapter 9 Building the Linux Kernel525

9.1 Toolchain526

9.1.1 Compilers527

9.1.2 Cross Compilers528

9.1.3 Linker528

9.1.4 ELF Object Files529

9.2 Kernel Source Build536

9.2.1 Source Explained536

9.2.2 Building the Kernel Image542

Summary551

Exercises551

Chapter 10 Adding Your Code to the Kernel553

10.1 Traversing the Source554

10.1.1 Getting Familiar with the Filesystem555

10.1.2 Filps and Fops556

10.1.3 User Memory and Kernel Memory558

10.1.4 Wait Queues559

10.1.5 Work Queues and Interrupts564

10.1.6 System Calls567

10.1.7 Other Types of Drivers567

10.1.8 Device Model and sysfs572

10.2 Writing the Code575

10.2.1 Device Basics575

10.2.2 Symbol Exporting578

10.2.3 IOCTL578

10.2.4 Polling and Interrupts582

10.2.5 Work Queues and Tasklets586

10.2.6 Adding Code for a System Call588

10.3 Building and Debugging590

10.3.1 Debugging Device Drivers590

Summary591

Exercises593

Bibliography595

Index599