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1 INTRODUCTION1

Science and Research,1

Limits and Horizons for Research in Criminology,3

Principles Guiding the Researcher,5

Criminology as Part of the Social Sciences,5

Research Terminology,13

Beginning the Research Study,15

Appendix to Chapter 1： The Schools of Criminology,24

2 BEGINNING RESEARCH： THE TOPIC,APPLICATION, AND PRESENTATION25

Topic Research,25

Searching for Topic Material,26

The Nature of Research,30

An Example of Topic Selection,34

Writing a Proposal,39

The Final Report,42

Using a Resource Bibliography,44

A Short Resource Bibliography for Criminology,46

Readings in Criminology Topics,49

Further Aids to Research and Research Writing,52

3 VARIABLES IN RESEARCH DESIGN54

Defining Variables,54

Measuring Variables,55

Types of Variable Analysis,59

Variables as the Key to Research Design,62

Statistical Notation for Variables,70

4 THE HYPOTHESIS： CONCEPT AND PRACTICE77

Making a Research Statement,77

The Research Hypothesis,79

The Null Hypothesis,84

Applying Hypotheses to Actual Research,91

Why Use Hypotheses and Format?,96

5 OTHER METHODS, TRIANGULATION, AND VALIDITY101

Methods and Validity,101

Nonreactive Measures,104

Triangulation-Precision in Use of Research Methods,113

The Uses of Other Methods for Problem Solving,117

6 DESIGN AND DATA124

Selection of a Research Design,124

Research Design with Assigned Variables,125

Data,130

7 THE INSTRUMENT, THE SAMPLE, AND THE METHOD148

Question Design,150

Obtaining the Sample,156

Sampling Methods,161

Errors in Survey Research-The Method Itself,165

The World of Nonresponse,169

8 CODING, THE PROGRAM, AND THE PRINTOUT176

Coding,177

Setting Up the Program,190

The Printout,190

Some Errors in Entering Data,195

Keeping Track of Data,198

Further Reading for Computer Technology,203

9 SAMPLING THEORY AND STATISTICS205

How to Use this Chapter,207

Variation and Standard Deviation,210

Standard Scores,210

Degrees of Freedom,213

Qualitative Data,213

Binomial Variables,214

Rules for BPD Sampling,216

The Normal Curve,218

Standard Deviation and Standard Error,222

Points and Bands,226

10 BIVARIATE ANALYSIS-CORRELATION,REGRESSION, AND PREDICTION234

Correlation,234

A Glimpse at Regression,252

Correlation, Regression, and Prediction,254

Causality,258

11 CHI-SQUARE, ASSOCIATION, AND THE CAUSAL CHAIN264

Expected and Observed Scores,265

Formulas for Chi-Square,267

Assumptions for Chi-Square,269

Restrictions for Chi-Square,269

Strength of Association for 2×2 Tables,270

Sample Size and Chi-Square,271

Rules for the Construction of Tables,273

Cross-Tabulations,278

Setting Up the Computer IBM Deck,280

Statements from the Printout for Chi-Square,282

Using a Calculator for Chi-Square,284

12 USING TWO OR MORE SAMPLES IN THEORY AND PRACTICE290

Relationships and Associations,290

The Differences of Means,291

Methods of Two-Sample Testing,296

Analysis of Variance,302

Elaboration Using Continuous Data,305

The Functions of Statistical Sample Estimates,306

13 USING MORE THAN TWO VARIABLES FOR ANALYSIS315

Multivariate Analysis-Elaboration,315

An Extension of Hypothesis Conclusions,325

Another Look at Elaboration,326

Using the Computer for Control Variables,332

Finding Relationships,333

Analysis Using SPSS,337

14 FALLACY, ETHICS, AND ERROR343

Kinds of Error,343

Fallacies in Research,344

The Ethics of Research,354

Project Error,357

15 COMPUTERS AND RESEARCH LOGIC366

Programs and Languages,366

Limits of the Computer,369

Using Terminals On-Line,370

Calculators and Software,372

The Use of Computers By Law-Enforcement Agencies,374

Methodology in Information Systems,381

APPENDIX 1 Student’s Quick Reference Table for r, t, x2 , and F Values,388

APPENDIX 2 Review, Rules, and Research Methods Tables,390

APPENDIX 3 Casino Gambling Survey,400

INDEX407