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Chapter 1 Introduction1

1.1 Linguistics1

1.1.1 Definition of linguistics1

Contents1

1.1.2 Linguistics versus traditional grammar2

1.1.3 Use of studying linguistics3

1.1.4 Scope of linguistics4

1.2 Language8

1.2.1 Definition of language8

1.2.2 Origin of language9

1.2.3 Design features of language10

1.2.4 Functions of language13

1.3 Some Major Concepts in Linguistics15

1.3.1 Descriiptive and prescriptive grammars15

1.3.2 Synchronic and diachronic linguistics15

1.3.4 Competence and performance16

1.3.3 Langue and parole16

1.3.5 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations17

1.3.6 Functionalism and formalism18

Exercises and Discussion Questions18

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading19

Supplementary Readings20

Chapter 2 The Sounds of Language25

2.1 Introduction25

2.2 Phonetics25

2.2.1 Articulators and their functions26

2.2.2 Voiced and voiceless sounds29

2.2.3 Nasal and oral sounds30

2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds31

2.2.4.1 English consonants32

2.2.4.2 English vowels34

2.2.5.2 Elision and assimilation35

2.2.5 Variations of sounds35

2.2.5.1 Liaison35

2.3 Phonology36

2.3.1 Phonemes:the phonological units of language37

2.3.2 Minimal pairs and sets38

2.3.3 Free variation39

2.3.4 Distinctive features39

2.3.5 Syllables and consonant clusters40

2.3.6 Suprasemental features43

2.3.6.1 Stress43

2.3.6.2 Intonation44

Exercises and Discussion Questions45

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading46

Supplementary Readings47

3.1 Introduction52

3.2 Morphemes52

Chapter 3 Morphology52

3.2.1 Free morphemes53

3.2.2 Bound morphemes53

3.3 Morphs and Allomorphs56

3.4 Types of Word Formation57

3.4.1 Compounding57

3.4.2 Derivation58

3.4.3 Other ways of word formation60

3.4.3.1 Conversion60

3.4.3.2 Backformation60

3.4.3.3 Clipping61

3.4.3.4 Blending61

3.4.3.5 Acronym61

3.4.3.6 Initialism62

Exercises and Discussion Questions63

Supplementary Readings65

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading65

Chapter 4 Syntax70

4.1 Introduction70

4.2 Word classes71

4.3 The Prescriptive Approach73

4.4 The Descriptive Approach74

4.4.1 Structural analysis74

4.4.2 Immediate constituent analysis75

4.5 Constituent Structure Grammar77

4.6 Transformational Grammar83

4.7 Systemic Functional Grammar87

Exercises and Discussion Questions95

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading96

Supplementary Readings97

5.1 Definition of Semantics103

Chapter 5 Semantics103

5.2 Approaches to Meaning104

5.2.1 Meaning as naming105

5.2.2 Meaning as concept106

5.2.3 Meaning as behavior107

5.2.4 Meaning as context107

5.2.5 Meaning as truth conditions109

5.3 Word Meaning110

5.3.1 Sense and reference110

5.3.2 Seven types of meaning111

5.3.2.1 Conceptual meaning111

5.3.2.2 Connotative meaning112

5.3.2.3 Social meaning113

5.3.2.4 Affective meaning114

5.3.2.5 Reflective meaning115

5.3.2.6 Collocative meaning115

5.3.2.7 Thematic meaning116

5.3.3 Semantic fields117

5.3.4 Componential analysis118

5.3.5 Semantic relationships between words120

5.3.5.1 Homonymy121

5.3.5.2 Polysemy121

5.3.5.3 Homophony122

5.3.5.4 Synonymy122

5.3.5.5 Antonymy123

5.3.5.6 Hyponymy124

5.3.5.7 Meronymy125

5.4 Sentence Meaning126

5.4.1 Sentence and proposition126

5.4.2 Semantic roles127

5.4.3.1 Entailment131

5.4.3.2 Presupposition131

5.4.3 Semantic relationships between sentences131

5.4.3.3 Synonymy132

5.4.3.4 Inconsistency132

5.4.3.5 Implicature132

Exercises and Discussion Questions133

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading135

Supplementary Readings136

Chapter 6 Pragmatics141

6.1 Introduction141

6.2 Micropragmatics143

6.2.1 Reference143

6.2.2 Deixis144

6.2.3 Anaphora145

6.2.4 Presupposition146

6.3 Macropragmatics147

6.3.1.1 Illocutionary acts148

6.3.1 Speech act theory148

6.3.1.2 Classification of illocutionary acts150

6.3.1.3 Indirect speech acts151

6.3.2 The Cooperative Principle153

6.3.2.1 The Cooperative Principle and its maxims153

6.3.2.2 Conversational implicatures154

6.3.3 The Politeness Principle157

Exercises and Discussion Questions161

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading162

Supplementary Readings163

Chapter 7 Discourse Analysis167

7.1 Discourse and Discourse Analysis167

7.2 Information Structure169

7.2.1 Given and new information169

7.2.2 Topic and comment170

7.2.3 Contrast172

7.3 Cohesion and Coherence173

7.3.1 Cohesion175

7.3.1.1 Reference175

7.3.1.2 Substitution176

7.3.1.3 Ellipsis176

7.3.1.4 Conjunction177

7.3.1.5 Lexical cohesion177

7.3.2 Coherence178

7.4 Discourse Markers180

7.5 Conversational Analysis182

7.5.1 Adjacency pairs183

7.5.2 Preference structure184

7.5.3 Presequences186

7.6 Critical Discourse Analysis187

Exercises and Discussion Questions189

Supplementary Readings190

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading190

Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics196

8.1 Introduction196

8.2 Language Varieties197

8.2.1 Standard language197

8.2.2 Dialects198

8.2.3 Registers200

8.2.4 Pidgins and creoles202

8.2.5 Language planning203

8.3 Choosing a Code204

8.3.1 Diglossia204

8.3.2 Bilingualism and multilingualism205

8.3.3 Code-switching206

8.4 Linguistic Taboos and Euphemisms207

8.5 Language and Gender210

Exercises and Discussion Questions212

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading213

Supplementary Readings214

Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics220

9.1 Introduction220

9.2 Language Acquisition221

9.3 Language Production223

9.3.1 Conceptualization224

9.3.2 Formulation224

9.3.3 Articulation226

9.3.4 Self-regulation226

9.4 Language Comprehension227

9.4.1 Sound comprehension228

9.4.2 Word comprehension228

9.4.3 Sentence comprehension230

9.4.4 Text comprehension231

9.5 Language and Thought232

9.5.1 Language determines thought233

9.5.2 Thought determines language235

Exercises and Discussion Questions237

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading238

Supplementary Readings239

Chapter 10 Cognitive Linguistics243

10.1 Introduction243

10.2 Categorization and Categories244

10.2.1 The classical theory244

10.2.2 Prototype theory246

10.2.3 Levels of categorization248

10.3 Conceptual Metaphor and Metonymy249

10.3.1 Conceptual metaphor249

10.3.2 Conceptual metonymy250

10.4.1 Iconicity of order254

10.4 Iconicity254

10.4.2 Iconicity of distance255

10.4.3 Iconicity of complexity256

10.5 Grammaticalization257

Exercises and Discussion Questions259

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading260

Supplementary Readings261

Chapter 11 Language Acquisition267

11.1 First Language Acquisition267

11.1.1 The behaviorist approach268

11.1.2 The innateness approach269

11.1.3 Stages of acquiring the first language270

11.2 Second Language Acquisition273

11.2.1 Contrastive analysis274

11.2.2 Error analysis274

11.2.3 Interlanguage276

11.3 Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition277

11.3.1 Language aptitude277

11.3.2 Cognitive style:field dependence and field independence278

11.3.3 Personality traits280

11.3.4 Learning strategies281

11.4 Instruction and L2 Acquisition284

11.4.1 Form-focused instruction284

11.4.2 Learner-instruction matching285

11.4.3 Strategy training286

Exercises and Discussion Questions287

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading288

Supplementary Readings289

Chapter 12 Applied Linguistics296

12.1 Introduction296

12.2 Language Teaching297

12.2.1 The grammar-translation method298

12.2.2 The direct method299

12.2.3 The audiolingual method300

12.2.4 Situational language teaching302

12.2.5 Functional language teaching303

12.2.6 Communicative language teaching305

12.2.7 Other approaches308

12.3 Testing308

12.3.1 The main types of language tests308

12.3.2 Principles of language testing313

12.4 Summary318

Exercises and Discussion Questions319

Sources and Suggestions for Further Reading319

Supplementary Readings321

Glossary326

Index341