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SECTION A Introductory1

1 Introduction: a corpus-based approach to English grammar3

1.1 Introduction4

1.2 Structure and use in English grammar6

1.3 Varieties of English15

1.4 Representation of varieties in the LSWE Corpus24

1.5 Description of the register categories in the LSWE Corpus29

1.6 Grammatical analysis of the LSWE Corpus35

1.7 Quantitative findings in the grammar38

1.8 Functional interpretation of quantitative findings41

1.9 Overview of the grammar44

1.10 Potential users and uses of the LGSWE45

SECTION B Basic grammar: description and distribution47

2 Word and phrase grammar49

2.1 The nature of grammatical units50

2.2 Words and their characteristics51

2.3 Survey of lexical words62

2.4 Survey of function words69

2.5 Survey of inserts93

2.6 Phrases and their characteristics94

2.7 Types of phrase96

2.8 Embedding of phrases113

2.9 Coordination of phrases113

2.10 Simple v. complex phrases117

3 Clause grammar119

3.1 Clause v. non-clausal material120

3.2 Major clause elements122

3.3 Clause links134

3.4 Peripheral elements136

3.5 Major clause patterns141

3.6 Variations on clause patterns152

3.7 Ellipsis156

3.8 Negation158

3.9 Subject-verb concord180

3.10 Types of dependent clauses192

3.11 Finite dependent clauses193

3.12 Non-finite clauses198

3.13 Major types of independent clauses202

3.14 Unembedded dependent clauses223

3.15 Non-clausal material224

SECTION C Key word classes and their phrases227

4 Nouns, pronouns, and the simple noun phrase229

4.1 Overview of nominals in discourse230

4.2 The basic structure of noun-headed phrases240

4.3 Types of nouns241

4.4 Determiners258

4.5 Number284

4.6 Case292

4.7 Gender311

4.8 Noun formation318

4.9 The role of pronouns in discourse327

4.10 Personal pronouns328

4.11 Possessive pronouns340

4.12 Reflexive pronouns342

4.13 Reciprocal pronouns346

4.14 Demonstrative pronouns347

4.15 Indefinite pronouns351

4.16 Other pronouns355

5 Verbs357

5.1 Major verb functions and classes358

5.2 Single-word lexical verbs360

5.3 Multi-word lexical verbs403

5.4 Main and auxiliary functions of primary verbs428

5.5 Copular verbs435

6 Variation in the verb phrase: tense, aspect, voice, and modality451

6.1 Structure and meaning distinctions in the verb phrase452

6.2 Tense453

6.3 Aspect460

6.4 Active and passive voice475

6.5 Complex combinations of aspect and voice482

6.6 Modals and semi-modals483

6.7 Combinations of modal verbs with marked aspect or voice497

6.8 Sequences of modals and semi-modals501

7 Adjectives and adverbs503

7.1 Overview504

7.2 Defining characteristics of adjectives505

7.3 Semantic grouping of adjectives508

7.4 Attributive adjectives510

7.5 Predicative adjectives515

7.6 Adjectives in other syntactic roles518

7.7 Comparative and superlative degree521

7.8 Comparative clauses and other degree complements526

7.9 Formation of adjectives530

7.10 Adjectives in combination536

7.11 Overview of adverbs538

7.12 The form of adverbs539

7.13 Syntactic roles of adverbs544

7.14 Semantic categories of adverbs552

7.15 Discourse choices for degree adverbs as modifiers564

SECTION D More complex structures571

8 Complex noun phrases573

8.1 Overview574

8.2 Structural types of premodification588

8.3 Meaning relations expressed by noun + noun sequences589

8.4 Noun phrases with multiple premodifiers596

8.5 Restrictive v. non-restrictive postmodifiers602

8.6 Major structural types of postmodification604

8.7 Postmodification by finite relative clause608

8.8 Postmodification by non-finite clause630

8.9 Postmodification by prepositional phrase634

8.10 Postmodification by appositive noun phrase638

8.11 Noun phrases with multiple postmodifiers640

8.12 Noun complement clauses v. nominal postmodifiers644

8.13 Structural types of noun complement clause645

8.14 Head nouns taking noun complement clauses648

9 The form and function of complement clauses657

9.1 Overview658

9.2 That-clauses660

9.3 Wh-clauses683

9.4 Infinitive clauses693

9.5 Ing-clauses739

9.6 Ellipsis and pro-form substitution in post-predicate complement clauses751

9.7 Choice of complement clause type753

10 Adverbials761

10.1 Overview762

10.2 Circumstance adverbials776

10.3 Stance adverbials853

10.4 Linking adverbials875

SECTION Grammar in a wider perspective893

11 Word order and related syntactic choices895

11.1 Overview896

11.2 Word order898

11.3 The passive935

11.4 Existential there943

11.5 Dislocation956

11.6 Clefting958

11.7 Syntactic choices in conversation v. academic prose963

12 The grammatical marking of stance965

12.1 Overview966

12.2 Major grammatical devices used to express stance969

12.3 Major semantic distinctions conveyed by stance markers972

12.4 Attribution of stance to the speaker or writer976

12.5 Register differences in the marking of stance978

13 Lexical expressions in speech and writing987

13.1 Overview988

13.2 Lexical bundles990

13.3 Idiomatic phrases1024

13.4 Free combinations of verb + particle1029

13.5 Coordinated binomial phrases1030

14 The grammar of conversation1037

14.1 Introduction1038

14.2 Performance phenomena: dysfluency and error1052

14.3 The constructional principles of spoken grammar1066

14.4 Selected topics in conversational grammar1108

Appendix1128

Endnotes1133

Bibliography1139

Lexical index1148

Conceptual index1174

文库索引1205

SECTION A Introductory1

1 Introduction: A corpus-based approach to English grammar3

1.1 Introduction4

1.1.1 Major goals of the LGSWE5

1.2 Structure and use in English grammar6

1.2.1 Register distribution8

1.2.2 Lexico-grammatical patterns13

1.2.3 Grammatical/discourse factors14

1.3 Varieties of English15

1.3.1 Registers of English15

1.3.2 Dialect distinctions17

1.3.3 Standard and non-standard English18

1.3.3.1 Variation within standard English18

1.3.3.2 Variation within non-standard English20

1.3.4 The relative importance of register and dialect differences20

1.4 Representation of varieties in the LSWE Corpus24

1.4.1 Register distinctions in the LSWE Corpus24

1.4.2 Dialect distinctions in the LSWE Corpus26

1.4.3 Size of the LSWE Corpus26

1.4.4 Representativeness and accuracy of the LSWE Corpus27

1.5 Description of the register categories in the LSWE Corpus29

1.5.1 Conversation29

1.5.2 Fiction29

1.5.3 News31

1.5.4 Academic prose32

1.5.5 Supplementary registers33

1.6 Grammatical analysis of the LSWE Corpus35

1.7 Quantitative findings in the grammar38

1.8 Functional interpretation of quantitative findings41

1.8.1 Function as the performance of task s41

1.8.2 Function as a reflection of processing constraints43

1.8.3 Function as social or situational indexing43

1.8.4 Other explanatory considerations44

1.9 Overview of the grammar44

1.10 Potential users and uses of the LGSWE45

SECTION B Basic grammar: description and distribution47

2 Word and phrase grammar49

2.1 The nature of grammatical units50

2.2 Words and their characteristics51

2.2.1 Word types and word tokens51

2.2.1. 1 Use of words in text examples51

2.2.1.2 TTR across the registers53

2.2.2 Orthographic words, grammatical words, and lexemes54

2.2.3 The three major word classes55

2.2.3.1 Lexical words55

2.2.3.2 Function words55

2.2.3.3 Inserts56

2.2.4 Closed systems v.open classes56

2.2.5 The structure of words: morphology57

2.2.5.1 Inflection57

2.2.5.2 Derivation57

2.2.5.3 Compounding58

2.2.5.4 Multi-word lexical units58

2.2.6 Core v. peripheral members of word classes59

2.2.7 Multiple class membership60

2.2.8 Use of lexical words, function words,and inserts61

2.2.9 Lexical density62

2.3 Survey of lexical words62

2.3.1 Nouns62

2.3.2 Lexical verbs63

2.3.3 Adjectives64

2.3.4 Adverbs64

2.3.5 Lexical word classes65

2.3.6 Borderline cases of lexical word class membership66

2.4 Survey of function words69

2.4.1 Determiners69

2.4.2 Pronouns70

2.4.2.1 Overlap of pronoun, determiner, and adverb classes71

2.4.2.2 Other pro-forms72

2.4.3 Primary auxiliaries72

2.4.4 Modal auxiliaries73

2.4.5 Prepositions74

2.4.5.1 Free v. bound prepositions74

2.4.5.2 Complex prepositions75

2.4.5.3 Overlap between prepositions and other word classes76

2.4.6 Adverbial particles78

2.4.6.1 Adverbial particles v. adverbs78

2.4.6.2 Adverbial particles v.prepositions78

2.4.7 Coordinators79

2.4.7.1 Correlative coordinators80

2.4.7.2 Coordinators v. other word classes80

2.4.7.3 Simple coordinators:distribution81

2.4.7.4 Sentence/turn-initial coordinators83

2.4. 7.5 Correlative coordinators: distribution85

2.4.8 Subordinators85

2.4.8.1 Complex subordinators85

2.4.8.2 Correlative subordinators86

2.4.8.3 Overlap between86

subordinators and other word classes86

2.4.9 Wh-words87

2.4.10 Existential there88

2.4.11 The negator not88

2.4.12 The infinitive marker to89

2.4.13 Numerals89

2.4.13.1 Cardinals89

2.4.13.2 Ordinals90

2.4.13.3 Numerals: distribution90

2.4.14 Major function word classes:distribution91

2.5 Survey of inserts93

2.6 Phrases and their characteristics94

2.6.1 Constituency94

2.6.2 Form v. syntactic role of phrases95

2.6.3 Phrases in text samples95

2.7 Types of phrase96

2.7.1 Noun phrases97

2.7.1.1 The syntactic roles of noun phrases98

2.7.1.2 Discontinuous noun phrases99

2.7.2 Verb phrases99

2.7.2.1 The syntactic role of verb phrases100

2.7.2.2 Discontinuous verb phrases100

2.7.2.3 Auxiliary-only verb phrases101

2.7.3 Adjective phrases101

2.7.3.1 The syntactic roles of adjective phrases101

2.7.3.2 Discontinuous adjective phrases102

2.7.4 Adverb phrases102

2.7.4.1 The syntactic roles of adverb phrases102

2.7.5 Prepositional phrases103

2.7.5.1 Extended prepositional phrases104

2.7.5.2 The syntactic roles of prepositional phrases104

2.7.5.3 Stranded prepositions105

2.7.5.4 Stranded prepositions in independent wh-questions105

2.7.6 Genitive phrases108

2.7.7 Numeral phrases109

2.7.7.1 Complex numbers109

2.7.7.2 Types of numerical expressions109

2.7.7.3 Approximate numbers111

2.7.7.4 Approximating numeral expressions112

2.8 Embedding of phrases113

2.9 Coordination of phrases113

2.9.1 Phrasal v. clausal coordination115

2.9.2 Coordination tags115

2.9.2.1 Distribution of coordination tags116

2.10 Simple v. complex phrases117

3 Clause grammar119

3.1 Clause v. non-clausal material120

3.1.1 Use of clauses v. non-clausal material in text samples120

3.2 Major clause elements122

3.2.1 Subject (S)123

3.2.1.1 Semantic roles of subjects123

3.2.1.2 Dummy subjects125

3.2.1.3 Subjects in non-finite clauses125

3.2.2 Verb phrase (V)125

3.2.3 Subject predicative (Ps)126

3.2.4 Direct object (Od)126

3.2.4.1 Semantic roles of direct objects127

3.2.4.2 Dummy objects128

3.2.5 Indirect object (Oi)128

3.2.6 Prepositional object (Op)129

3.2.7 Object predicative (Po)130

3.2.8 Adverbials (A)130

3.2.8.1 Circumstance adverbials (Ac)131

3.2.8.2 Stance adverbials (As)131

3.2.8.3 Linking adverbials (Ai)133

3.2.9 The operator133

3.3 Clause links134

3.4 Peripheral elements136

3.4.1 Detached predicatives and related forms136

3.4.2 Parentheticals137

3.4.3 Prefaces138

3.4.4 Tags139

3.4.5 Discourse markers140

3.4.6 Vocatives140

3.5 Major clause pattems141

3.5.1 Subject—verb phrase141

3.5.2 Subject—verb phrase—obligatory adverbial143

3.5.3 Subject—verb phrase—subject predicative145

3.5.3.1 The characterizing pattern145

3.5.3.2 The identifying pattern146

3.5.4 Subject—verb phrase—direct object147

3.5.5 Subject—verb phrase—prepositional object149

3.5.6 Subject—verb phrase—indirect object-direct object150

3.5.7 Subject—verb phrase—direct object—prepositional object150

3.5.8 Subject—verb phrase—direct object—object predicative151

3.5.9 Subject—verb phrase—direct object—obligatory adverbial151

3.5.10 More complex patterns152

3.6 Variations on clause patterns152

3.6.1 Order variations152

3.6.1.1 Inversion152

3.6.1.2 Fronting153

3.6.1.3 Postponement153

3.6.2 The passive154

3.6.3 Existential there154

3.6.4 Extraposition155

3.6.5 Clefting155

3.6.6 Condensation155

3.7 Ellipsis156

3.7.1 Ellipsis in coordinated clauses156

3.7.2 Ellipsis in comparative clauses156

3.7.3 Ellipsis in question-answer sequences157

3.7.4 Other types of textual ellipsis157

3.7.5 Omission of function words and situational ellipsis157

3.8 Negation158

3.8.1 Overall frequency of negation159

3.8.2 Not-negation160

3.8.2.1 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with transitive have (got)160

3.8.2.2 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with the semi-modal have to162

3.8.2.3 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with dare and need163

3.8.2.4 The auxiliary do in negative clauses with ought to and used to164

3.8.2.5 Full form v. operator contraction v. not-contraction165

3.8.2.6 Aren't I and ain't167

3.8.3 No-negation168

3.8.4 Occurrence of not-negation v. no-negation169

3.8.4.1 Variability of not-negation and no-negation169

3.8.4.2 Relative frequency of not-negation v. no-negation170

3.8.4.3 Choice of no-negation v.not-negation171

3.8.4.4 Not-negation collocations173

3.8.5 The scope of negation175

3.8.6 Assertive and non-assertive forms176

3.8.7 Multiple negation177

3.8.7.1 Dependent multiple negation178

3.8.7.2 Independent multiple negation179

3.9 Subject-verb concord180

3.9.1 Complications with concord patterns180

3.9.1.1 Concord with plural forms not ending in -s181

3.9.1.2 Concord with singular forms ending in -s181

3.9.1.3 Concord with coordinated subjects182

3.9.1.4 Concord with indefinite pronouns and quantifying expressions184

3.9.1.5 Concord with existential there185

3.9.1.6 Concord with clausal subjects187

3.9.2 Notional concord187

3.9.2.1 Concord with names, titles,and quotations187

3.9.2.2 Concord with measure expressions187

3.9.2.3 Concord with collective nouns188

3.9.3 Concord and proximity189

3.9.4 Non-standard concord in conversation190

3.9.5 Subject-verb concord and pronominal reference192

3.10 Types of dependent clauses192

3.11 Finite dependent clauses193

3.11.1 Nominal clauses193

3.11.2 Adverbial clauses194

3.11.3 Relative clauses195

3.11.4 Comparative clauses and other degree clauses195

3.11.5 Reporting clauses196

3.11.6 Comment clauses197

3.11.7 Other peripheral clauses197

3.12 Non-finite clauses198

3.12.1 Infinitive clauses198

3.12.2 Ing-clauses199

3.12.3 Ed-clauses200

3.12.4 Supplementive clauses201

3.12.5 Verbless clauses201

3.13 Major types of independent clauses202

3.13.1 Declarative clauses203

3.13.2 Interrogative clauses203

3.13.2.1 Wh-questions204

3.13.2.2 Yes/no-questions206

3.13.2.3 Alternative questions207

3.13.2.4 Question tags208

3.13.2.5 Interrogatives in general:distribution211

3.13.2.6 Question types: distribution211

3.13.2.7 Choice between interrogative who and whom214

3.13.2.8 Auxiliary do in independent interrogative clauses215

3.13.3 Exclamative clauses219

3.13.4 Imperative clauses219

3.13.4.1 The realization of imperative clauses219

3.13.4.2 Imperative clauses:distribution221

3.14 Unembedded dependent clauses223

3.15 Non-clausal material224

3.15.1 Non-clausal material in writing224

3.15.2 Non-clausal material in conversation225

SECTION C Key word classes and their phrases227

4 Nouns, pronouns, and the simple noun phrase229

4.1 Overview of nominals in discourse230

4.1.1 Use of nominals in discourse230

4.1.1.1 Density and types of nominal elements230

4.1.1.2 The role of nominal elements in discourse231

4.1.1.3 Establishing reference232

4.1.1.4 Chains of reference234

4.1.2 Pronouns v. full noun phrases235

4.1.3 The forms of anaphoric expressions237

4.1.4 Forms of anaphoric expression in relation to distance239

4.2 The basic structure of noun-headed phrases240

4.3 Types of nouns241

4.3.1 Use of countable nouns in Text samples242

4.3.2 Use of uncountable nouns in Text samples243

4.3.2.1 Countable and uncountable uses of nouns243

4.3.2.2 Plural uncountables244

4.3.3 Proper nouns245

4.3.3.1 Initial capitals245

4.3.3.2 Proper nouns regularly occurring with the definite article246

4.3.3.3 Proper nouns functioning as common nouns247

4.3.4 Collective nouns247

4.3.4.1 Collocations of quantifying collectives248

4.3.5 Unit nouns250

4.3.5.1 Collocations of unit nouns250

4.3.6 Quantifying nouns252

4.3.6.1 Collocations of types of quantifying nouns252

4.3.6.2 Pair v. couple254

4.3.7 Species nouns255

4.3.7.1 Species nouns: distribution256

4.3.8 Noun v. determiner257

4.4 Determiners258

4.4.1 The articles260

4.4.1.1 The indefinite article260

4.4.1.2 The zero article261

4.4.1.3 The definite article263

4.4.1.4 Generic reference265

4.4.1.5 Reference patterns of definite noun phrases266

4.4.1.6 Definite and indefinite articles: distribution267

4.4.1.7 Definite and indefinite articles in relation to syntactic role268

4.4.1.8 Definite determiners:distribution269

4.4.2 Possessive determiners270

4.4.2.1 Possessive determiners:distribution271

4.4.3 Demonstrative determiners272

4.4.3.1 Demonstrative determiners:distribution274

4.4.4 Quantifiers275

4.4.4.1 Quantifiers: distribution277

4.4.5 Numerals278

4.4.5.1 Numerals across the registers279

4.4.6 Semi-determiners280

4.4.6.1 Other uses of the semi-determiners281

4.4.6.2 Semi-determiners:distribution282

4.4.7 Wh-determiners284

4.4.8 Determiner v. pronoun284

4.5 Number284

4.5.1 Regular plurals285

4.5.1.1 Plurals of words ending in -o285

4.5.2 Irregular plurals286

4.5.3 Latin and Greek plurals286

4.5.4 Zero plurals288

4.5.5 Plural-only nouns and nouns in -s289

4.5.6 Singular v. plural nouns: distribution291

4.6 Case292

4.6.1 The form of the genitive292

4.6.1.1 Genitive v. common case293

4.6.2 The frequency of genitive case forms293

4.6.3 Specifying genitives294

4.6.4 Classifying genitives294

4.6.4.1 Classifying genitives: use295

4.6.5 Genitives of time295

4.6.6 Genitives of measure296

4.6.7 Elliptic genitives296

4.6.8 Other independent genitives297

4.6.8.1 Independent genitives unsupported by the linguistic context297

4.6.9 Group genitives298

4.6.10 The double genitive299

4.6.11 Density of genitives299

4.6.12 Choice between s-genitives and of-phrases300

4.6.12.1 S-genitives and of-phrases overall301

4.6.12.2 S-genitives and of-phrases and the dependent noun302

4.6.12.3 Meanings of s-genitives and of-phrases303

4.6.12.4 S-genitives and of-phrases and length304

4.6.12.5 S-genitives and of-phrases and information status305

4.6.12.6 S-genitives and of-phrases in collocations306

4.6.12.7 Summary of choice between s-genitives and of-phrases306

4.6.13 Choice between elliptic genitives and of-constructions307

4.6.13.1 Elliptic genitives v.of-constructions: distribution307

4.6.14 Choice between the double genitive and related constructions308

4.6.14.1 The double genitive v.corresponding constructions with possessive pronouns308

4.6.14.2 The double genitive v.ordinary of-phrases310

4.6.14.3 The double genitive v.partitive constructions311

4.7 Gender311

4.7.1 Lexical expression of gender312

4.7.1.1 Words for masculine/feminine gender312

4.7.1.2 Lexical means of expressing dual gender reference315

4.7.2 Gender-specific v. dual gender pronoun reference316

4.7.2.1 Grammatical means for dual gender reference317

4.7.3 Personal v. non-personal reference with pronouns317

4.8 Noun formation318

4.8.1 Derived nouns319

4.8.1.1 Derivational prefixes used to form new nouns320

4.8.1.2 Some common derivational suffix patterns320

4.8.1.3 Frequency of common noun derivational suffixes322

4.8.1.4 Productivity of common noun derivations323

4.8.2 Formation of nouns through compounding325

4.8.2.1 Noun compounds in conversation and news in AmE326

4.9 The role of pronouns in discourse327

4.10 Personal pronouns328

4.10.1 Specific reference328

4.10.1.1 Problems in the use of first person plural pronouns329

4.10.1.2 Problems in the use of second person pronouns330

4.10.1.3 Problems in the use of third person pronouns331

4.10.2 Referring to people in general331

4.10.3 Special problems with collective nouns331

4.10.4 Special uses of it332

4.10.5 Personal pronouns: distribution333

4.10.6 Nominative v. accusative forms of personal pronouns335

4.10.6.1 Pronoun choice after forms of be335

4.10.6.2 Pronoun choice after as and than336

4.10.6.3 Pronoun choice in coordinated noun phrases337

4.10.6.4 Pronoun choice in peripheral and non-integrated noun phrases339

4.10.6.5 Summary of factors affecting pronoun case choice340

4.11 Possessive pronouns340

4.11.1 The type a friend of mine341

4.11.2 Possessive pronouns: distribution341

4.12 Reflexive pronouns342

4.12.1 Reflexive pronouns: distribution344

4.12.2 Emphatic reflexive pronouns345

4.13 Reciprocal pronouns346

4.13.1 Reciprocal pronouns: distribution346

4.14 Demonstrative pronouns347

4.14.1 Demonstrative pronouns:349

distribution349

4.14.2 This/these in academic prose349

4.14.3 Thbse with postmodifying phrases or clauses350

4.14.4 The demonstrative pronoun that in conversation350

4.14.5 That in general350

4.15 Indefinite pronouns351

4.15.1 Indefinite pronouns: distribution353

4.15.2 The pronoun one353

4.15.2.1 The pronoun one: distribution354

4.16 Other pronouns355

5 Verbs357

5.1 Major verb functions and classes358

5.1.1 Frequency of lexical, modal, and primary auxiliary verbs358

5.1.2 Distribution of lexical verbs and copula be across registers359

5.2 Single-word lexical verbs360

5.2.1 Classification of verbs into semantic domains360

5.2.1.1 Major semantic domains of single-word verbs361

5.2.1.2 Distribution of semantic domains365

5.2.1.3 Semantic domains of verbs365

5.2.2 Most common lexical verbs373

5.2.2.1 Overall use of the most common lexical verbs373

5.2.2.2 Most common verbs in each register374

5.2.3 Verbs with animate and inanimate subjects378

5.2.4 Valency patterns for single-word lexical verbs380

5.2.4.1 Valencies of common verbs across semantic domains382

5.2.4.2 Variation in verb valency patterns384

5.2.4.3 Intransitive and monotransitive patterns384

5.2.4.4 Intransitive, monotransitive, and complex transitive patterns386

5.2.4.5 Intransitive, monotransitive,and ditransitive patterns388

5.2.4.6 Monotransitive and ditransitive but not intransitive patterns389

5.2.4.7 Verbs taking almost all patterns390

5.2.4.8 General patterns392

5.2.5 Regular lexical verb inflections392

5.2.5.1 Consonant doubling of regularly inflected verbs393

5.2.5.2 Doubling of base-final /followed by -ed across dialects394

5.2.6 Irregular lexical verb inflections394

5.2.6.1 Classes of irregular verbs394

5.2.6.2 Regular and irregular forms396

5.2.6.3 Got and gotten398

5.2.7 Verb derivation399

5.2.7.1 Most frequent verb derivational affixes400

5.2.7.2 Productivity of verb derivational affixes400

5.3 Multi-word lexical verbs403

5.3.1 Features distinguishing multi-word verb combinations404

5.3.1.1 Multi-word combinations functioning as different structural categories405

5.3.2 Phrasal verbs407

5.3.2.1 Semantic domains of phrasal verbs408

5.3.2.2 Register distribution of phrasal verbs408

5.3.2.3 The most common phrasal verbs409

5.3.2.4 Productivity of particular verbs and adverbial particles412

5.3.3 Prepositional verbs413

5.3.3.1 Semantic domains of prepositional verbs414

5.3.3.2 Register distribution of prepositional verbs415

5.3.3.3 The most common prepositional verbs416

5.3.3.4 Productivity of particular verbs and prepositions422

5.3.4 Phrasal-prepositional verbs423

5.3.4.1 Register distribution of phrasal-prepositional verbs424

5.3.4.2 The most common phrasal-prepositional verbs425

5.3.5 Other multi-word verb constructions427

5.4 Main and auxiliary functions of primary verbs428

5.4.1 Be428

5.4.2 Have429

5.4.3 Do430

5.4.3.1 Main verb do in idiomatic expressions430

5.4.3.2 Do as pro-verb430

5.4.3.3 Register distribution of main verb and pro-verb do432

5.4.3.4 Auxiliary do in emphatic function433

5.4.3.5 Lexical associations of emphatic do433

5.4.3.6 Auxiliary do-support in negatives and interrogatives435

5.5 Copular verbs435

5.5.1 Verbs functioning as copulas436

5.5.2 Complements of copular verbs436

5.5.3 Register distribution of copular verbs and common predicative adjectives437

5.5.3.1 Current (non-sensory)copular verbs439

5.5.3.2 Sensory copular verbs442

5.5.3.3 Resulting copular verbs443

5.5.4 Valency patterns of the copulas be,seem, and appear446

5.5.4.1 Complement types with be,seem, and appear446

5.5.4.2 Subject and complement types with be448

6 Variation in the verb phrase: tense, aspect,voice, and modality451

6.1 Structure and meaning distinctions in the verb phrase452

6.2 Tense453

6.2.1 Basic tense and time distinctions453

6.2.1.1 Simple present tense marking past or future time454

6.2.1.2 Past tense in reported speech455

6.2.1.3 The marking of future time456

6.2.2 Register distribution of tense and modality456

6.2.3 Lexical associations of present and past tense459

6.3 Aspect460

6.3.1 Perfect and progressive aspect across registers and dialects461

6.3. 1. 1 Register distribution of perfect and progressive aspect461

6.3.1.2 Perfect and progressive aspect across dialects462

6.3.2 Perfect aspect463

6.3.2.1 Lexical associations of present perfect aspect463

6.3.2.2 Present perfect forms of get and have across dialects466

6.3.2.3 Present perfect aspect v.simple past tense467

6.3.2.4 Lexical associations of past perfect aspect468

6.3.2.5 Past perfect aspect v. simple past tense469

6.3.3 Progressive aspect470

6.3.3.1 Lexical associations of progressive aspect471

6.4 Active and passive voice475

6.4.1 Register distribution of active and passive voice476

6.4.2 Lexical associations of the passive477

6.4.2.1 Verbs that commonly occur in the passive477

6.4.2.2 Verbs common with the get passive481

6.4.2.3 Verbs uncommon in the passive481

6.5 Complex combinations of aspect and voice482

6.6 Modals and semi-modals483

6.6.1 Distribution of modals and semi-modals486

6.6.2 Individual modals/semi-modals across registers and dialects487

6.6.3 Lexical associations of modality490

6.6.4 Extrinsic v. intrinsic uses of individual modals491

6.6.4.1 The permission/possibility/ ability modals491

6.6.4.2 The obligation/necessity modals and semi-modals493

6.6.4.3 The volition/prediction modals and semi-modals495

6.7 Combinations of modal verbs with marked aspect or voice497

6.8 Sequences of modals and semi-modals501

7 Adjectives and adverbs503

7.1 Overview504

7.1.1 Use of adjectives and adverbs504

7.2 Defining characteristics of adjectives505

7.2.1 Attributive and predicative adjectives across registers506

7.2.2 Central and peripheral adjectives507

7.2.3 Adjectives strongly associated with attributive or predicative position508

7.3 Semantic grouping of adjectives508

7.4 Attributive adjectives510

7.4.1 Semantic domains of attributive adjectives510

7.4.2 Most common attributive adjectives511

7.5 Predicative adjectives515

7.5.1 Most common predicative adjectives516

7.6 Adjectives in other syntactic roles518

7.6.1 Postposed adjectives519

7.6.2 Adjectives as noun phrase heads519

7.6.3 Adjectives with a clause linking function520

7.6.4 Adjectives as exclamations520

7.6.5 Adjectives as detached predicatives520

7.7 Comparative and superlative degree521

7.7.1 Gradable adjectives with -er and -est522

7.7.2 Inflectional v. phrasal comparison522

7.7.3 Inflectional comparison across registers523

7.7.4 Phrasal comparison with more and most524

7.7.5 Doubly marked comparatives and superlatives525

7.7.6 Adjectives with superlative or absolute meanings525

7.8 Comparative clauses and other degree complements526

7.8.1 Comparative constructions across registers528

7.9 Formation of adjectives530

7.9.1 Participial adjectives530

7.9.1.1 Common participial adjectives530

7.9.2 Derived adjectives530

7.9.2.1 Common adjectives with derivational suffixes531

7.9.3 Adjectival compounds533

7.9.3.1 Distribution of adjectival compounds535

7.10 Adjectives in combination536

7.10.1 Repeated comparative adjectives536

7.10.2 The intensifiers good and and nice and537

7.11 Overview of adverbs538

7.12 The form of adverbs539

7.12.1 Formation of adverbs539

7.12.1.1 Adverb forms540

7.12.2 Adverbs and adjectives with the same form542

7.12.2.1 Good and real as adverbs542

7.12.3 Comparative and superlative forms544

7.13 Syntactic roles of adverbs544

7.13.1 Adverbs modifying adjectives544

7.13.1.1 Adverbs modifying adjectives in conversation and academic prose545

7.13.2 Adverbs modifying other adverbs546

7.13.2.1 Adverbs modifying adverbs in conversation and academic prose546

7.13.3 Adverbs modifying other elements548

7.13.4 Adverbs as complements of prepositions548

7.13.5 Adverbs as clause elements: adverbials549

7.13.6 Adverbs with degree complements549

7.13.7 Adverbs standing alone551

7.14 Semantic categories of adverbs552

7.14.1 Importance of context in the semantics of adverbs552

7.14.2 Description of semantic categories552

7.14.2.1 Place552

7.14.2.2 Time552

7.14.2.3 Manner553

7.14.2.4 Degree554

7.14.2.5 Additive/restrictive556

7.14.2.6 Stance557

7.14.2.7 Linking558

7.14.2.8 Other meanings560

7.14.3 Semantic domains of adverbs in conversation and academic prose560

7.15 Discourse choices for degree adverbs as modifiers564

7.15.1 Amplifiers in conversation and academic prose564

7.15.2 Degree modifiers other than amplifiers in conversation and academic prose566

SECTION D More complex structures571

8 Complex noun phrases573

8.1 Overview574

8.1.1 Register distribution of noun phrases with pre- and postmodifiers578

8.1.2 Co-occurrence of modifiers with head noun types579

8.1.3 Discourse distribution of noun phrase types in academic prose585

8.2 Structural types of premodification588

8.2.1 Structural types of premodification across registers589

8.3 Meaning relations expressed by noun + noun sequences589

8.3.1 Noun + noun sequences across registers592

8.3.2 Plural nouns as premodiflers594

8.4 Noun phrases with multiple premodifiers596

8.4.1 Length of sequences of premodifiers597

8.4.2 Order of multiple premodifiers598

8.4.3 Coordinated premodifiers600

8.5 Restrictive v. non-restrictive postmodifiers602

8.5.1 Distribution of restrictive v. non- restrictive relative clauses603

8.6 Major structural types of postmodification604

8.6.1 Postmodifier types across registers606

8.7 Postmodification by finite relative clause608

8.7.1 The discourse choice among relativizers608

8.7.1.1 Variant relativizers in non-standard dialects609

8.7.1.2 Distribution of relativizers across registers609

8.7.1.3 Who v. which, that, and zero612

8.7.1.4 Who v. whom, that, and zero614

8.7.1.5 Which v. that615

8.7.1.6 Discourse choice between whose and of which617

8.7.1.7 Whose v. of which across registers618

8.7.1.8 Discourse choice of the zero relativizer619

8.7.2 Grammatical role of the relative clause gap621

8.7.2.1 Relative clause gaps in conversation622

8.7.3 Subject v. non-subject head nouns623

8.7.4 Relative clauses with adverbial gaps624

8.7.4.1 Relative adverbs across registers624

8.7.4.2 Head nouns taking relative clauses with adverbial gaps626

8.8 Postmodification by non-finite clause630

8.8.1 Participle clauses as postmodifiers630

8.8.1.1 Passive and -ing forms of verbs in postmodifying participle clauses v. relative clauses631

8.8.2 To-clauses as postmodifiers632

8.8.2.1 Structural types of postmodifying to-clause633

8.9 Postmodification by prepositional phrase634

8.9.1 Common prepositions in postmodifying prepositional phrases635

8.9.2 Choice of prepositional phrase v.relative clause637

8.10 Postmodification by appositive noun phrase638

8.10.1 Appositive noun phrases in news and academic prose639

8.11 Noun phrases with multiple postmodifiers640

8.11.1 Order of constituents in postmodifier complexes641

8.12 Noun complement clauses v.nominal postmodifiers644

8.13 Structural types of noun complement clause645

8.13.1 Noun complement clause types across registers647

8.14 Head nouns taking noun complement clauses648

8.14.1 Head nouns taking that-clauses648

8.14.1.1 Head nouns that take both that-complement clauses and relative clauses650

8.14.2 Head nouns taking to-clauses652

8.14.3 Head nouns taking of + ing-clauses653

8.14.4 Head nouns taking wh-interrogative clauses656

9 The form and function of complement clauses657

9.1 Overview658

9.1.1 Complementation by clauses658

9.1.2 Structural types of complement clause658

9.1.3 Grammatical positions of complement clauses659

9.2 That-clauses660

9.2.1 Discourse functions of that-clauses660

9.2.2 Post-predicate that-clauses controlled by verbs661

9.2.2.1 Structural patterns661

9.2.2.2 Controlling verbs, by semantic domain662

9.2.2.3 Common controlling verbs across registers667

9.2.3 Verbs taking extraposed that-clauses670

9.2.4 Subject noun phrases with subject predicative that-clauses671

9.2.5 That-clauses controlled by adjectival predicates671

9.2.5.1 Adjectival predicates taking post-predicate that-clauses672

9.2.5.2 Adjectival predicates taking extraposed that-clauses672

9.2.6 Register distribution of that-clause types674

9.2.7 Pre-predicate v. extraposed that-clauses676

9.2.7.1 Register factors676

9.2.7.2 Information structure677

9.2.7.3 Grammatical factors678

9.2.7.4 Topic and style679

9.2.8 Retention v. omission of the that complementizer680

9.2.8.1 Register factors680

9.2.8.2 Discourse factors favoring that omission681

9.2.8.3 Discourse factors favoring that retention682

9.3 Wh-clauses683

9.3.1 Structural types of wh-clauses683

9.3.2 Post-predicate wh-clauses controlled by verbs684

9.3.2.1 Grammatical patterns685

9.3.2.2 Controlling verbs, by semantic domain685

9.3.2.3 Common controlling verbs across registers688

9.3.2.4 Post-predicate wh-clauses introduced by whether and if690

9.3.2.5 Common verbs controlling whether- and if-clauses691

9.4 Infinitive clauses693

9.4.1 Overview693

9.4.2 Post-predicate infinitive clauses controlled by verbs693

9.4.2.1 Grammatical patterns694

9.4.2.2 Pattern 1: verb + to-clause694

9.4.2.3 Pattern 2: verb + NP + to-clause695

9.4.2.4 Pattern 2P: NP2 + passive verb + to-clause697

9.4.2.5 Pattern 3: verb + for NP +to-clause698

9.4.2.6 Register distribution of verb patterns698

9.4.2.7 Controlling verbs, by semantic domain699

9.4.2.8 Interaction between the semantic and grammatical characteristics of controlling verbs709

9.4.2.9 Common controlling verbs across registers710

9.4.3 Verbs taking extraposed to-clauses714

9.4.4 Subject noun phrases and subject predicative to-clauses714

9.4.5 To-clauses controlled by adjectives716

9.4.5.1 Grammatical patterns716

9.4.5.2 Adjectives taking post-predicate to-clauses718

9.4.5.3 Adjectival predicates taking extraposed to-clauses720

9.4.6 Grammatical distribution of to-clauses722

9.4.7 Pre-predicate v. extraposed to-clauses724

9.4.7.1 Register factors724

9.4.7.2 Information structure725

9.4.7.3 Grammatical complexity726

9.4.7.4 Stylistic preference727

9.4.8 Object-to-subject raising v.extraposed to-clauses with adjectives728

9.4.8.1 Register factors728

9.4.8.2 Grammatical complexity and information packaging729

9.4.8.3 Stylistic preference730

9.4.9 Subject-to-subject raising v.extraposed that-clauses731

9.4.9.1 Information packaging731

9.4.9.2 Register factors732

9.4.9.3 Clauses with seem and appear733

9.4.9.4 Clauses with likely and unlikely734

9.4.10 To-clause v. bare infinitive clause with dare and help735

9.4.10.1 Dialect factors735

9.4.10.2 Register factors736

9.4.10.3 The pattern to help +infinitive737

9.4.11 Try+to + verb v. try + and + verb738

9.4.11.1 Distributional factors738

9.5 Ing-clauses739

9.5.1 Overview739

9.5.2 Post-predicate ing-clauses controlled by verbs740

9.5.2.1 Grammatical patterns740

9.5.2.2 Controlling verbs, by semantic domain741

9.5.2.3 Common controlling verbs across registers746

9.5.3 Adjectival predicates controlling ing-clauses749

9.5.4 Post-predicate ing-clauses across registers749

9.5.5 Objective v. possessive NP with ing-clauses750

9.5.5.1 Register distribution750

9.6 Ellipsis and pro-form substitution in post-predicate complement clauses751

9.6.1 Verbs occurring commonly with ellipsis and pro-form substitution751

9.7 Choice of complement clause type753

9.7.1 Register distribution, structural factors, and semantic factors754

9.7.2 Lexico-grammatical factors755

9.7.3 That-clauses v. non-finite clauses756

9.7.4 Infinitive v. ing-clause757

10 Adverbials761

10.1 Overview762

10.1.1 The three classes of adverbial763

10.1.1.1 Frequency of the three classes of adverbial765

10.1.2 Syntactic realizations of adverbials767

10.1.2. 1 Syntactic realizations of the three adverbial classes768

10.1.3 Positions of adverbials in the clause770

10.1.3.1 Frequencies of positions of adverbials772

10.1.4 Adverbial variation in relation to other elements774

10.2 Circumstance adverbials776

10.2.1 Semantic categories of circumstance adverbials776

10.2.1.1 Place776

10.2.1.2 Time777

10.2.1.3 Process777

10.2.1.4 Contingency779

10.2.1.5 Extent/degree780

10.2.1.6 Addition/restriction780

10.2.1.7 Recipient781

10.2.1.8 Other semantic relationships781

10.2.1.9 Overlap and ambiguity782

10.2.2 Distribution of semantic categories783

10.2.3 Overview of syntactic realizations of semantic categories787

10.2.4 Syntactic realizations of circumstance adverbials (excluding clauses)789

10.2.4.1 Semantic categories within syntactic forms789

10.2.4.2 Length of prepositional phrases791

10.2.4.3 Diversity in adverb and prepositional phrase circumstance adverbials793

10.2.5 Most common circumstance adverbials795

10.2.6 Position of circumstance adverbials801

10.2.6.1 Associations between positions and semantic categories801

10.2.6.2 Relationships between position, grammatical structure, and length807

10.2.7 Circumstance adverbials in series810

10.2.7.1 Heterosemantic place, time, and manner series811

10.2.7.2 Homosemantic place, time,and manner series814

10.2.7.3 Series of three and more adverbials817

10.2.8 Clauses as circumstance adverbials818

10.2.8.1 Semantic categories of circumstance adverbial clauses818

10.2.8.2 Distribution of clausal semantic categories820

10.2.8.3 Syntactic forms of circumstance adverbial clauses825

10.2.8.4 Distribution of clausal syntactic forms826

10.2.8.5 Dangling participles829

10.2.8.6 Positions of adverbial clauses830

10.2.8.7 Subordinators and adverbial clauses838

10.2.8.8 Subordinators with non-finite adverbial clauses838

10.2.8.9 Most common subordinators across registers841

10.2.8.10 Common subordinators with multiple semantic roles846

10.2.8.11 Though as subordinator v. linking adverbial850

10.2.8.12 Conditional clauses with if v. subject-operator inversion851

10.3 Stance adverbials853

10.3.1 Semantic categories of stance adverbials854

10.3.1.1 Epistemic stance adverbials854

10.3.1.2 Attitude adverbials856

10.3.1.3 Style adverbials857

10.3.1.4 Ambiguity with other adverbial classes857

10.3.1.5 Distribution of semantic categories859

10.3.2 Syntactic realizations of stance adverbials861

10.3.2.1 Distribution of syntactic forms862

10.3.2.2 Sentence relatives as stance adverbials867

10.3.3 Most common stance adverbials across registers867

10.3.4 Positions of stance adverbials872

10.3.5 Other discourse functions of stance adverbials874

10.4 Linking adverbials875

10.4.1 Semantic categories of linking adverbials875

10.4.1.1 Enumeration and addition875

10.4.1.2 Summation876

10.4.1.3 Apposition876

10.4.1.4 Result/inference877

10.4.1.5 Contrast/concession878

10.4.1.6 Transition879

10.4.1.7 Overlap of linking adverbials and other adverbial classes879

10.4.1.8 Distribution of semantic categories880

10.4.2 Syntactic realizations of linking adverbials884

10.4.2. 1 Distribution of syntactic forms884

10.4.3 Most common linking adverbials886

10.4.3.1 Most common linking adverbials in conversation and academic prose886

10.4.3.2 Stylistic preferences for linking adverbials889

10.4.4 Positions of linking adverbials890

SECTION E Grammar in a wider perspective893

11 Word order and related syntactic choices895

11.1 Overview896

11.1.1 Information flow896

11.1.2 Focus, emphasis, contrast, and intensification897

11.1.3 Weight898

11.2 Word order898

11.2.1 Grammatical principles of word order899

11.2.2 Fronting900

11.2.2.1 Fronted objects and other nominals900

11.2.2.2 Fronted predicatives902

11.2.2.3 Fronted infinitive predicates905

11.2.2.4 Fronted ed- and ing-predicates906

11.2.2.5 Fronting in dependent clauses908

11.2.2.6 Fronting in exclamations909

11.2.2.7 Fronting: distribution909

11.2.3 Inversion of subject and verb or operator911

11.2.3.1 Subject-verb inversion911

11.2.3.2 Subject-operator inversion915

11.2.3.3 Inversion after the linking forms so, nor, and neither917

11.2.3.4 Special cases of inversion in independent clauses918

11.2.3.5 Inversion in dependent clauses918

11.2.3.6 Inversion in reporting clauses921

11.2.3.7 Reporting clauses in fiction and news923

11.2.3.8 Inversion in general: distribution926

11.2.4 Word-order options at the end of the clause927

11.2.4.1 The placement of direct and indirect objects927

11.2.4.2 Pronoun sequences as direct and indirect object929

11.2.4.3 Clauses with direct objects and object predicatives930

11.2.4.4 The placement of objects of phrasal verbs932

11.3 The passive935

11.3.1 Types of passive construction935

11.3.2 Passives across syntactic positions and registers937

11.3.3 The long passive940

11.3.3.1 Length of subject v. agent phrase in long passives940

11.3.3.2 Givenness of subject v.agent phrase941

11.3.4 Comparison of discourse functions of the long and short passive943

11.4 Existential there943

11.4.1 The grammatical status of existential there944

11.4.2 Variation in the verb phrase944

11.4.2.1 Verb constructions other than simple be945

11.4.3 The notional subject946

11.4.4 Adverbial expansions947

11.4.5 Existential and locative there948

11.4.6 Simple v. complex existential clauses949

11.4.7 Discourse functions of existential clauses951

11.4.8 Existential clause v. locative inversion954

11.4.8.1 Existential clause v.locative inversion: distribution954

11.4.9 Existential constructions with there v. have955

11.5 Dislocation956

11.5.1 Prefaces957

11.5.2 Noun phrase tags957

11.5.3 Prefaces and noun phrase tags: distribution957

11.6 Clefting958

11.6.1 It-clefts959

11.6.2 Wh-clefts959

11.6.3 Reversed wh-clefts960

11.6.4 Cleft constructions: distribution961

11.7 Syntactic choices in conversation v. academic prose963

12 The grammatical marking of stance965

12.1 Overview966

12.1.1 Paralinguistic and non-linguistic devices967

12.1.2 Lexical marking of stance968

12.2 Major grammatical devices used to express stance969

12.2.1 Variability in the structural characteristics of stance devices971

12.3 Major semantic distinctions conveyed by stance markers972

12.3.1 Epistemic stance972

12.3.2 Attitudinal stance974

12.3.3 Style of speaking stance975

12.4 Attribution of stance to the speaker or writer976

12.4.1 Explicit attribution of stance976

12.4.2 Implicit attribution of stance to the speaker/writer977

12.4.3 Ambiguous attribution of stance977

12.5 Register differences in the marking of stance978

12.5.1 Major stance devices across registers979

12.5.2 Stance adverbials across registers981

12.5.3 Stance complement constructions across registers984

13 Lexical expressions in speech and writing987

13.1 Overview988

13.2 Lexical bundles990

13.2.1 Operational definition of lexical bundles992

13.2.1.1 Lexical bundles in conversation and academic prose993

13.2.2 Key to lists of lexical bundles1000

13.2.3 Lexical bundles in conversation1001

13.2.3.1 Personal pronoun + lexical verb phrase (+ complement-clause fragment)1002

13.2.3.2 Pronoun/noun phrase + be +1005

13.2.3.3 Verb phrase with active verb1006

13.2.3.4 Yes-no question fragments1007

13.2.3.5 Wh-question fragments1008

13.2.3.6 Lexical bundles with wh-clause fragments1009

13.2.3.7 Lexical bundles with to-clause fragments1010

13.2.3.8 Verb + that-clause fragments1010

13.2.3.9 Adverbial clause fragments1011

13.2.3.10 Noun phrase expressions1012

13.2.3.11 Prepositional phrase expressions1012

13.2.3.12 Quantifier expressions1013

13.2.3.13 Other expressions1014

13.2.3.14 Meaningless sound bundles1014

13.2.4 Lexical bundles in academic prose1014

13.2.4.1 Noun phrase with of- phrase fragment1015

13.2.4.2 Noun phrase with other post-modifier fragments1016

13.2.4.3 Prepositional phrase with embedded of-phrase fragment1017

13.2.4.4 Other prepositional phrase(fragment)1018

13.2.4.5 Anticipatory it + verb phrase/adjective phrase1019

13.2.4.6 Passive verb + prepositional phrase fragment1020

13.2.4.7 Copula be + noun phrase/ adjective phrase1021

13.2.4.8 (Verb phrase +)that-clause fragment1021

13.2.4.9 (Verb/adjective +)to-clause fragment1022

13.2.4.10 Adverbial clause fragment1023

13.2.4.11 Pronoun/noun phrase +be (+ ...)1023

13.2.4.12 Other expressions1024

13.3 Idiomatic phrases1024

13.3.1 Idiomatic phrases across registers1025

13.3.2 Verb + noun phrase combinations with have, make, and take1026

13.4 Free combinations of verb +particle1029

13.5 Coordinated binomial phrases1030

13.5.1 Key to lists of binomial phrases1031

13.5.2 Verb and/or verb1031

13.5.3 Noun and/or noun1033

13.5.4 Adjective and/or adjective1034

13.5.5 Adverb and/or adverb1036

14 The grammar of conversation1037

14.1 Introduction1038

14.1.1 An example of conversation1040

14.1.2 A functional survey of conversation1041

14.1.2.1 Conversation takes place in the spoken medium1041

14.1.2.2 Conversation takes place in shared context1042

14.1.2.3 Conversation avoids elaboration or specification of meaning1044

14.1.2.4 Conversation is interactive1045

14.1.2.5 Conversation is expressive of politeness, emotion, and attitude1047

14.1.2.6 Conversation takes place in real time1048

14.1.2.7 Conversation has a restricted and repetitive repertoire1049

14.1.2.8 Conversation employs a vernacular range of expression1050

14.1.2.9 Lack of functional explanation1051

14.2 Performance phenomena:dysfluency and error1052

14.2.1 Hesitations: silent and filled pauses1053

14.2.1.1 Frequency of filled and unfilled pauses1053

14.2.2 Repeats1055

14.2.2.1 Multiple consecutive repeats1055

14.2.2.2 Frequency of repeats1056

14.2.2.3 Repeats of forms with verb contractions1060

14.2.3 Retrace-and-repair sequences: reformulations1062

14.2.4 Utterances left grammatically incomplete1063

14.2.5 Syntactic blends1064

14.2.5.1 Syntactic blends v.semantic gap-filling clauses1066

14.3 The constructional principles of spoken grammar1066

14.3.1 Principles of online production1066

14.3.1.1 Parenthetical structures1067

14.3.1.2 The 'add-on' strategy1068

14.3.1.3 Clausal and non-clausal units (C-units)1069

14.3.1.4 Distribution of clausal and non-clausal units1070

14.3.2 Prefaces, bodies, and tags1072

14.3.2.1 Prefaces and other utterance launchers1073

14.3.2.2 The ambivalent grammatical status of utterance launchers1076

14.3.2.3 Extending the body1078

14.3.2.4 Tags1080

14.3.3 More on non-clausal units: inserts1082

14.3.3.1 Interjections1083

14.3.3.2 Greetings and farewells1085

14.3.3.3 Discourse markers1086

14.3.3.4 Attention signals1088

14.3.3.5 Response elicitors1089

14.3.3.6 Response forms1089

14.3.3.7 Hesitators1092

14.3.3.8 Various polite speech-act formulae1093

14.3.3.9 Expletives1094

14.3.3.10 Distribution of inserts1095

14.3.4 Syntactic non-clausal units1099

14.3.4.1 Elliptic replies1099

14.3.4.2 Other types of syntactic non-clausal unit1100

14.3.4.3 Elliptic phrasal non-clausal units in their context1104

14.3.5 Ellipsis in clausal units1104

14.3.5.1 Initial (situational) ellipsis1104

14.3.5.2 Initial ellipsis1105

14.3.5.3 Final (post-operator) ellipsis1106

14.3.5.4 Medial (operator) ellipsis1107

14.3.5.5 Distribution of initial,medial, and end ellipsis1108

14.4 Selected topics in conversational grammar1108

14.4.1 A closer look at vocatives1108

14.4.1.1 The distribution of vocatives1111

14.4.2 Conducive yes-no interrogatives1113

14.4.2.1 Negative yes-no interrogatives1114

14.4.2.2 Negative v. positive yes-no interrogatives1114

14.4.2.3 Assertive yes-no questions1115

14.4.2.4 Assertive v. non-assertive yes-no questions1115

14.4.3 First person imperatives with let's1117

14.4.3.1 Common accompaniments of let's1117

14.4.4 Direct speech reporting (quoted speech)1118

14.4.4.1 Using utterance-launchers to open quoted speech1118

14.4.4.2 Repetition of reporting clauses1119

14.4.4.3 Reporting clauses with go1119

14.4.4.4 Opening quoted speech with be + like, all1120

14.4.4.5 The past progressive with reporting verbs1120

14.4.5 Vernacular or non-standard grammar1121

14.4.5.1 Morphophonemic variants1122

14.4.5.2 Morphological variants1122

14.4.5.3 Morphosyntactic variants1123

14.4.5.4 Syntactic variants1125

14.4.5.5 Conclusion1125

Appendix1128

Endnotes1133

Bibliography1139

Lexical index1148

Conceptual index1174