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PART I BACKGROUND1

CHAPTER 1　NTRODUCTION 　　3

The State of the Industry Today 　3

The Need to Use Effective Requirements Practices 　6

WhatIsa Process?　7

The Requirements Process 　7

1-1 Process Integrates People,Tools,Procedures,and Methods8

What Is the Requirements Process?　9

Benefits of a Process Approach 　11

ContentsList of Figures　11

Pitfalls of Using a Process Approach 　12

1-2 Benchmark Data on Improvements for CMM Level 3 Organizations12

About This Book 　14

Roles 　14

KeyTerms 　14

Foreword 　15

A Requirements Taxonomy 　16

1-3 Requirements Taxonomy16

Preface 　17

Systems and Software Engineers　17

Intended Audience 　17

Recommended Mind-setfor Readers ofThis Book 　18

The"Team,"the"Project,"and the"Project Manager"　　18

Key References and Suggested Readings　19

Footnotes in This Book　19

Upcoming Topics　19

Key References and Suggested Readings 　20

Summary　20

Acknowledgments 　23

PART 11 RECOMMENDED REQUIREMENTS PRACTICES　25

CHAPTER 2　COMMIT TO THE APPROACH27

What Do We Mean by Commitment? 　28

2-1 Customer and Supplier Issues29

How Can Commitment Be Attained and Maintained? 　30

2-2 The Partnering Concept31

2-3 Issue Resolution Ladder34

2-4 Action Planning Worksheet35

2-5 Sample Project Charter36

Recommendations to Assist in Evolving the Partnering Approach 　37

2-6 Benefits of Partnering37

Involve Managers with Authority in the Partnering Workshop 　38

Develop a Requirements Plan 　38

2-7 Sample Table of Contents for a Requirements Plan39

Utilize a Set of Mechanisms, Methods, Techniques, and Tools 　40

Work Toward a Quality Culture　40

2-9 PRC Rules of Conduct41

2-8 Advantages of Utilizing a Set of Mechanisms,Methods,Techniques,and Tools41

Summary 　42

Key References and Suggested Readings 　42

CHAPTER 3 ESTABLISH AND UTILIZE A JOINT　TEAM RESPONSIBLE FOR THE REQUIREMENTS45

What Is a"Joint Team”?46

What Does the Joint Team Do?47

Who Should Be on the Joint Team?48

How Is the Joint Team Created?48

What Metrics Need to Be Created and Tracked?49

How Often Should the Joint Team Meet?49

Customer and Supplier Roles 　50

Calculating Return on Investment (ROI) from Using Effective Requirements Practices 　50

3-1 Calculating ROI from Effective Requirements Practices51

Summary 　53

3-2 Customer(Buyer)and Supplier Roles Throughout the System LifeCycle53

Key References and Suggested Readings 　54

CHAPTER 4 DEFINE THE REAL CUSTOMER NEEDS　57

Recommendations to Facilitate Getting to the Real Requirements59

Invest More in the Requirements Process60

4-1 Effect of Requirements Process Investment on Program Costs62

Train PMs to Pay More Attention to the Requirements Process62

Identifya Project Champion63

DefinetheProjectVisionandScope64

4-2 The Role of the Champion64

Identify a Requirements Engineer and Utilize Domain Experts to Perform Requirements Engineering Tasks65

4-3 Suggested Table of Contents for an OCD66

4-4 Template for a Vision and Scope Document73

Train Developers Not to Make Requirements Decisions andNotto GoldPlate74

Utilizea VarietyofTechniques to Elicit Customerand UserRequirementsand Expectations74

Use Cases75

4-5 Example of a Use Case Diagram76

TrainRequirementsEngineerstoWriteGoodRequirements79

TheImpactofRequirementsErrors79

TheImportanceofRequirementstoP rogram Costs80

4-6 Types of Nonclerical Requirements Errors80

4-7 RelativeCosttoFixanError81

4-8 Relative Cost to Fix Requirements Defects When Discovered in Later Stages81

4-9 Criteria of a Good Requirement82

WhatIs a GoodRequirement?82

Document the Rationalefor Each Requirement84

Utilize Methods and Automated Tools to Analyze,Prioritize,and Track Requirements85

4-10 CommerciaJ Requirements Tools,Vendors,and Web Sites86

Approaches,Tools,andMethodsforPrioritizingRequirements87

4-11 Sample Requirements Attribute Matrix87

Collect Requirements from Multiple Viewpoints89

4-12 The PREview Process89

Pitfalls90

Considerthe Useof Formal Methods When Appropriate90

Summary91

Key References and Suggested Readings92

CHAPTER 5 USE AND CONTINUALLY IMPROVE A REQUIREMENTS PROCESS97

What Is a Process?98

How Is a Process Designed?99

5-1 Process Flowchart Template100

5-2 Process Description Template101

Why Is a Requirements Process Needed?103

5-3 The Rationale for Requirements Engineering104

5-4 Industry Experience105

5-5 Lessons Learned for Systems Success from Industry Experience106

Goals of Requirements Engineers107

5-6 Goals of Good Requirements Engineers108

5-7 Before You Write Requirements108

5-8 The Up-front Process109

5-9 What Drives Requirements?109

A Sample Requirements Process110

5-10 SE-CMM PAs111

5-11 Requirements Process Macro(high level)112

5-12 Requirements Process Micro:Assess New/Changed Requirements and Control Changes114

5-13 Requirements Process Micro:Understand Customer Needs and Expectations115

5-14 Requirements Process Micro:Define and Allocate Requirements116

5-15 Template for a Project Requirements Policy119

How Can Organizations Create or Tailor a Requirements Process?122

5-16 The Value of an Organizational Working Group123

Tailoring of Processes123

Web Support:An Organizational Process Asset Library124

5-17 Sample Requirements Jump-start Kit125

Summary125

Key References and Suggested Readings125

CHAPTER 6 ITERATE THE SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS AND ARCHITECTURE REPEATEDLY131

The System Engineering Process132

6-1 The System Engineering Process133

Recommendations134

Considerthe"Designability"of the System When Addressing the Requirements134

Utilize a System Architecture Process136

Allocate Requirements to Functional Partitions,Objects,People,or Support Elements to Support Synthesis ofSolutions136

6-2 SA Process Flow137

Consider Open Systems Standards146

6-3 Iterative System Decomposition146

6-4 Architecture Development Process Overview147

6-5 TRM High-Level View148

6-6 Distributed Computing Architecture Diagram149

6-7 Detailed TRM150

Guidelines for"Architecting"151

6-8 Architecture Development Cycle151

Another View153

Key References and Suggested Readings154

Summary154

CHAPTER 7 USE A MECHANISM TO MAINTAIN PROJECT COMMUNICATION159

Natural Human Tendency160

Setting the Stage160

A Proactive Approach to Achieve Effective Communication161

An Example Mechanism162

7-1 The Requirements Macroprocess163

When Negativism Shows Up164

Another Valuable Mechanism—Brown Bags165

Guidelines for Effective Meetings165

Guidelines for Effective E-mail Communication167

7-2 Guidelines for Use of Graphics in E-mail Messages170

The Value of a Common Vocabulary172

The Use ofVertical Experts173

A Final Recommendation174

Summary174

Avoid Multiple Locations174

Key References and Suggested Readings175

CHAPTER 8 SMELECT FAMLIAR METHODS AND MAINTAIN A SET OF WORK PRODUCTS179

The Foundation for System Development180

What Are the Candidate Methods and Techniques?180

Which Methods and Techniques Are Best?182

8-2 Relative Capability of Methods to Remove Various Types of Defects184

8-1 Quality Method Effectiveness and Costs184

8-3 Positive and Negative Factors That Influence Software Development Productivity187

Use of Function Points for Software Estimation189

Quality Function Deployment190

What Comprises the Requirements Specification?192

The Rationale for Prioritizing Requirements193

8-4 Requirements Prioritization Checklist195

Summary195

Key References and Suggested Readings196

CHAPTER 9 PERFORM REQUIREMENTS VERIFICATION AND VALIDATION201

V V Terminology202

V V Planning203

The Importance of V V203

9-1 Verification and Validation203

9-2 Certain Words Flag Unverifiable Requirements204

9-3 Examples of Unverifiable and Verifiable Requirements205

9-4 Verification Planning Checklist207

Verification Methods207

9-5 Definition and Guidelines for Requirements Traceability208

Using Traceability to Support Verification208

V V Techniques208

A Structured Approach to Testing210

Pitfalls211

Recommendations211

Summary213

Key References and Suggested Readings214

CHAPTER 10 PROVIDE AN EFFECTIVE MECHANISM TO ACCOMMODATE REQUIREMENTS CHANGES217

Why Such Emphasis?218

Planning for Changes in Requirements219

10-1 TCM Process Context Diagram220

Requirements Leakage221

The Recommended Mechanism221

10-2 The Requirements Process Macro222

10-3 Sources of Unofficial Requirements and Ways to Gain Control of Unofficial Requirements223

Focus on What Counts!224

How Much Can Requirements Change?224

A Way to Deal with Requirements Creep Contractually225

10-4 Other Recommendations to Control Requirements Changes227

Other Recommendations227

Summary229

Key References and Suggested Readings229

CHAPTER 11 PERFORM THE DEVELOPMENT EFFORT USING KNOWN,FAMILIAR PROVEN INDUSTRY,ORGANIZATIONAL,AND PROJECT BEST PRACTICES231

What's All the Fuss?233

What Can We Do About It?234

Provide to the Development Team an Understanding of the Relevant Policies,Processes,and Procedures to Be Used235

Recommendations235

Utilize a Practical,Effective project Management Approach235

11-1 Checklist for Project Start-up236

11-2 The Ten Steps of Structured Project Management238

11-3 The Myths of Software Project Management239

11-4 Modern Process Approaches for Solving Conventional Problems242

11-5 Evolution of Project Artifacts243

Ensure That Selected Members of the Development Team Have Domain Knowledge244

perform the Development Effort Using Known(Trained),Proven Processes,Mechanisms,Methods,Techniques,and Tools244

11-6 Technologies Used on Successful and Unsuccessful Projects246

Provide and Utilize Mechanisms to Foster Effective Communications Throughout the Development Team247

Utilize Peer Reviews and Inspections to Remove Defects om Processes and Work Products248

Ensure That Configuration ManagementIs Effective250

Foster an Independent QA Role That Proactively Assists and Supports the Development Team and Provides Value to the Project251

Ensure That Subcontractors Are Managed So That Their Contributions Are Effective252

11-7 Subcontractor Management Key Practices253

Use Appropriate,Useful Metrics to Manage the Project255

11-8 Overview of the Seven Core Metrics257

11-9 The Basic Parameters of an EV System258

Ensure That a Systematic Approach to Involving the Customer in This Entire Effort Is Working258

11-10 An Innovative Use of EV to Track Progress259

Manage Processes Quantitatively.Also,Use a Defect Prevention (DP) Process,a Technology Change Management(TCM)Process,and a Process Change Management(PCM)Process.Perform Extensive Reinsertion and Reuse Throughout the Organization261

Musings on Project Management262

11-11 Musings on Project Management263

Summary265

Key References and Suggested Readings266

PART Ⅲ WHAT TO DO NEXT271

Common Issues273

CHAPTER 12 HOW TO PROCEED273

RequirementsasaKeyDrivertoAnySystems orSoftwareEffort275

The Customer275

Key Factors in Addressing These Issues275

Financing Improvements in the Requirements Process275

Metrics276

Management Awareness and Expectations276

Survival of the Fittest276

Where to Start277

TheDevelopment Team277

12-1 Requirements Activities Checklist279

How to Prioritize Needed Efforts284

12-2 Guidelines for System Development Based on Requirements Considerations286

12-3 How a Requirements Process Facilitates Effective Project Performance288

Relationship of the Recommended Effective Requirements Practices to the CMM289

12-4 Mapping of the Effective Requirements Practices to the SW-CMM290

12-5 Bad Excuses Related to Requirements Definition and Management291

ButI HaveSoManyThingstoDo...291

What If We Are"Further Along"on Our Project?293

Summary293

Key References and Suggested Readings294

Epilogue299

List of Acronym s301

Glossary309

Credits321

Bibliography325

Author Index345

Subject Index349

List of Figures349