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INTRODUCTION - THE FAILURE AND THE PROMISE OF THE MULTILATERAL TRADING REGIME1

Ⅰ The ‘Science of Development’ and ‘Capitalist Imperialism’4

Ⅱ Development as a ‘Discourse’ and Development as a ‘Trap’7

Ⅲ Outline of the Chapters10

1 THE BRETTON WOODS CONFERENCE： TRADE AND THE CIVILISING MISSION’ IN THE POSTWAR INTERNATIONAL TRADING REGIME14

Ⅰ The Mandate System and ‘the Science of Development’16

A Freedom of Transit and Equitable Treatment： The First Regulatory Attempt at a World Trade Order…20

B …and the Extension of Market Imperatives22

Ⅱ The Bretton Woods Conference and the Postwar International Economic Order23

A Grounding ‘Non-Discrimination’ and ‘Equal Treatment’ in Trade Relations26

B The Draft Charter and the London Conference： Of Rules and Exceptions29

C The Free-Trade Contradictions of the Charter： Structuring the International Division of Labour31

D The Investment Provisions： Protecting Capital Abroad34

E The Outcome of the ITO Negotiations36

Ⅲ The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade （GATT）37

Conclusions38

2 THE ‘SCIENCE OF DEVELOPMENT’ AND THE GATT NORM41

Ⅰ The Emergence of the Development Enterprise43

A The ‘Professionalisation’ and ‘Institutionalisation’ of Development45

B Development Economics’ ‘Growth’ and ‘Progress’46

C Development Economics’ Normative Assumptions48

D Reformist Dependency Theories and the Development Matrix： The Structuralist School of Thought51

Ⅱ The GATT Development Mission55

A The GATT First Review Session： Positing Developing Countries’ Failure57

B The Haberler Report and Committee Ⅲ： Tracing Discrimination58

C The GATT Part Ⅳ： Discharging Responsibility60

D Enabling Non-Reciprocity62

E A ‘Differential and More Favourable Treatment’？64

F Assessing the GATT’s Flexibility66

Conclusions68

3 THE NEO-LIBERAL TRANSFORMATION OF DEVELOPMENT THINKING AND THE RENEWED MISSION OF THE MULTILATERAL TRADING REGIME70

Ⅰ The Neo-Liberal Conversion of Development Thinking71

A Rational Choice-Based Approach…74

B …and Failing Institutional Arrangements76

C Outward-Oriented Policies and Government Controls77

Ⅱ The Neo-Liberal Transformation of the International Trading Regime80

A The World Recession and the Restructuring of the International Economy82

B Towards a Trade-Service-Investment Driven Market Integration： Enter the ‘New Issues’85

C Setting the Scene for the New Mandate88

D Punta del Este： A Divisive Strategy90

Ⅲ Developing Countries’ Re-Alignment： Revisiting the Story93

A From the Oil and Debt Crisis to the Structural Adjustment Policies94

B The Challenge of Increasing Discrimination97

C The Pressure Tactic： Unilateralism/Bilateralism/Multilateralism98

Conclusions100

4 THE URUGUAY ROUND AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE NEW CONSENSUS103

Ⅰ Old and New Issues on the Negotiating Table， Corporate Activism and the Single Undertaking Approach105

Ⅱ The Rise of US Protectionism and the Consolidation of the Pressure Tactic108

Ⅲ The Montreal/Geneva Mid-Term Review： Weakening the Opposition to a Broader Mandate112

Ⅳ Brussels Ministerial Meeting： Reintroducing Reciprocity115

Ⅴ From Brussels to Marrakesh： Clinton’s Aggressive Approach to Market Openness119

Ⅵ The Final Agreement： Towards an Equal Playing Field？121

A The New Issues…121

B …and the Same Old Ones125

Conclusions128

5 THE WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION： THE POWER OF TRANSNATIONAL CAPITAL AND THE REDUCTION OF DOMESTIC REGULATORY SPACE130

Ⅰ Assessing the ‘Trade Off’： the Market Access Issues132

A Agriculture133

B Textiles and Clothing134

C Safeguards and Anti-Dumping135

D Implementation Costs136

Ⅱ Liberalisation Rhetoric and Practice： Opening Markets， Protecting Capital138

A Investors’ Rights in Historical Context139

B The Changing Investment Climate of the 1980s and 1990s： Securing Protection Abroad142

C The ‘Modest’ TRIMs Agreement145

D The ‘Flexible’ General Agreement on Trade in Services （GATS）149

E The ‘Balanced’ TRIPs Agreement157

Conclusions163

6 OF FAILURES AND PROMISES： THE MANY LIVES OF THE DOHA DEVELOPMENT ROUND164

Ⅰ The Road to Doha： Reflecting on the UR Imbalances165

Ⅱ The Doha Agenda168

A Principles and Objectives： Multilateralism， Free Trade， Development168

B Work Programme： Towards a Softening of the WTO Neo-Liberal Agenda？170

Ⅲ From Cancun to Geneva： Emerging Oppositions176

Ⅳ Reaction to Cancun： Silencing Dissent180

Ⅴ GATS ‘Flexibility’： Rhetoric and Negotiating Practice182

A The Safeguard Mechanism and Liberalisation of GATS Mode 4： An Uncertain Future183

B Targeting Non-Discriminatory Domestic Regulation： GATS Article Ⅵ185

C Enter Specific Commitments： The Request-Offer Approach186

Ⅵ TRIPs： Transfer of Technology v Investors’ Rights189

A Substantive TRIPs-plus Standards in Investment Agreements192

B Investor-to-State Dispute Resolution193

C Expropriation194

Ⅶ From Hong Kong to Geneva： The Last Breath of the Doha Round？197

A The July Framework198

B The Hong Kong Ministerial Declaration199

C Suspension， Crisis， Resumption201

Conclusions202

CONCLUSIONS - THE DEVELOPMENT MISSION OF THE WTO205

Ⅰ The First Perspective： The Reform of the International Trading System207

A The GATS and the Financial Crisis210

B Addressing the Challenge， Strengthening the Mindset213

Ⅱ The Second Perspective： The WTO and its Civilising Mission217

Ⅲ The WTO’s Market-Access Mindset220

Ⅳ The ‘Political Rationality’ of Development224

Bibliography228

Index243