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PART Ⅰ：Context，Concepts，and Characterization1

1 Introduction：Context，Concepts，and Characterization3

Introduction3

Focus on Basic Principles3

Transportation：A Broad Field4

Transportation and the Social-Political-Economic Context4

Understanding the Dimensions of Transportation5

Technology5

Systems5

Institutions5

Complex，Large，Integrated，Open Systems（CLIOS）6

Transportation System Concepts and Characterization7

Reference9

2 Transportation System Components：An Internal Perspective11

Physical Components of Transportation Systems11

Infrastructure11

Vehicles12

Equipment12

Power Systems13

Fuel13

Control，Communications，and Location Systems14

Summary of Basic Physical Components15

Operators16

Labor16

Organized Labor16

Management Function17

Marketing17

Competition Between Transportation and Communication18

Strategic Planning19

Operations19

Operations/Marketing Tension19

Maintenance Management20

Information Management20

Operations Research20

Administration21

Operating Plans21

Schedule21

Crew Assignments22

Flow Distribution22

Connection Patterns：Hub-and-Spoke23

Cost/Level-of-Service Trade-Off24

Contingency Planning25

3 Transportation System Components：An External Perspective27

External Components of the Transportation System27

Government28

Competition28

Financial Community29

Supply Industry29

Stakeholders30

General Public30

The Customer31

Reference31

4 The Customer and Level-Of-Service33

The Customer33

Freight Transportation Customers33

Traveler Transportation Customers36

Choice and Level-of-Service for Freight and Travelers37

Level-of-Service as Dynamic38

Reducing Multidimensional Level-of-Service to a Unidimensional Variable41

Level-of-Service Variables41

Utility43

Mode Choice45

Travel Time Reliabity46

References48

5 Networks49

Networks49

Links49

Intermodal Networks51

Nodes51

Mathematical Operations on Networks53

Predicting Link Flows53

Incremental Assignment55

The Inverse Problem56

Logical Links56

Reference57

6 Transportation Systems：Key Points 1-1059

The Elevator Example59

Elevator System Configuration59

The Elevator Cycle60

7 Transportation Systems：Key Points 11-1769

Key Points Continued69

Lumpy Elevator Investment79

Reference81

8 Transportation Systems：Key Points 18-2483

Key Points Continued83

The Mechanics of Supply/Demand Equilibrium91

Changing Supply91

Changing Demand93

Increased Volume：Better or Worse？95

Peaking96

Price as an Incentive96

Congestion Pricing97

Pricing of Transportation Services98

Flow Imbalance99

9 Transportation Systems：Key Points 25-30101

Key Points Continued101

Shifts In Activity Base Related to Transportation106

Measuring Transportation System Performance107

What Do Your Customers Perceive？107

Performance Measures and Cost107

System Versus Component Performance108

Performance Measures and Behavior108

Network Performance109

Summary of Key Points111

Reference113

10 Models and Frameworks115

Models and Frameworks：An Introduction115

A Structure for Transportation Systems Analysis116

The Subtlety in Choosing Measures-of-Effectiveness117

Abstraction of Real World into Models or Frameworks118

Models118

Is the Abstraction Any Good？119

Why Are We Modeling？120

Insight120

Choosing the Best Alternative Optimization121

System Operation122

Learn From Model Building Processes122

Modeling for Negotiation123

The Model is a Shaper of Your World View125

Modeling Approaches126

Getting Answers from Models127

Models Versus Frameworks128

Frameworks128

Porter’s Framework——Strategic Comparative Advantage129

Simplicity Versus Complexity131

References133

11 Modeling Concepts135

Introduction to Models135

Hierarchies of Models136

Modeling Issues136

Boundaries136

Macroscopic Versus Microscopic Models137

Static Versus Dynamic Models138

Stochastic Versus Deterministic Models138

Linear Versus Nonlinear138

Continuous Versus Discrete Models138

Numerical Simulation Versus Closed Form Solution140

Behavioral Versus Aggregate Models140

Physical Versus Mathematical Models140

Solution Techniques141

Understanding the System141

Why We Model142

Issues in Model Building143

Time and Resources143

Data143

Designing a Successful Model144

Ease of Use144

Convincing Models144

Growth Path144

Produce Benefits144

Measuring Model Success144

New Developments in Models and Frameworks145

Solution of Very Large Transportation Problems145

The IT Environment146

Real-Time Solutions146

Transportation on the Agenda146

PART Ⅱ：Freight Transportation147

12 The Logistics System and Freight Level-Of-Service149

Freight149

The Logistics Model：An Umbrella Store149

Ordering149

Transportation Costs150

Storage150

Deterministic Use Rate and Delivery Time151

Longer Delivery Time152

A New，Faster Mode153

Unreliability in Delivery Time154

Stock-Outs157

Service Reliability as a Level-Of-Service Variable158

Component Reliability Versus Service Reliability158

Probabilistic Use Rates158

Inventory Minimization160

Just-In-Time Systems161

Structured Inventory Model162

Trigger Point Systems162

Total Logistics Costs（TLC）162

TLC and LOS of Transportation Service164

Market Segmentation165

Allocating Scarce Capacity166

Yield Management166

Costs167

Other LOS Variables167

Loss and Damage167

Rate Structure168

Service Frequency168

Service Availability168

Equipment Availability and Suitability168

Shipment Size169

Information169

Flexibility169

13 Railroads：Introductory Concepts171

Modes171

Railroads171

Rail Technology：A Basic View172

Low-Cost Transportation172

Railroads as a Monopoly173

Regulation and Deregulation173

Railroad Management174

High Fixed Costs174

U.S.R ailroads Own Their Infrastructure175

Freight Transportation Statistics177

Modal Shares177

Modal Share：Tons177

Modal Share：Ton-Miles178

Modal Share：Revenues178

Different Modes——Different Roles179

Railroads Continued179

Commodities179

Freight Car Types179

Double-Stack180

Gondola cars181

Tank Cars181

Hazardous Materials181

Refrigerator Cars182

Auto-Rack Cars182

Specialization in Freight Car Types182

Railroad Growth and Rationalization183

Major Shrinkage of Rail Network184

Substantial Growth/Substantial Rationalization184

Mergers185

Branch Line Abandonment185

Guarding Against Monopoly Power185

Cross-Subsidies186

References186

14 Railroad Operations187

Railroad Operations187

Blocking188

Consolidation189

Missed Connections189

Operating Costs190

Operations Versus Marketing Perspectives191

Train Dispatching191

The Choice in Dispatching192

Holding for Traffic193

Delay Propagation on Networks193

Network Stability194

Operating Plan Integrity195

Scheduled Versus Flexible Operation195

Daily Modified Operating Plan196

How to Define Scheduled Versus Flexible Railroads？197

Reference197

15 Railroad Terminals：P-MAKE Analysis To Predict Network Performance199

Terminals199

Terminal Robustness200

Centralized Versus Decentralized Decision-Making201

LOS and Routing Over the Rail Network201

Terminal Operations202

A Hump Yard202

Queuing203

Micro-Simulation203

A Macro Perspective203

Think About the Customer203

P-MAKE Analysis204

Average Yard Time205

P-MAKE Analysis207

Origin-Destination Trip Times208

Train Frequency211

Bypassing Yards211

16 Car Costs and Level-of-Service215

A More Subtle View of Costs215

Car Costs216

Freight Car Cycle216

Fleet Size Calculation217

Car Cost/Day Calculation217

Cost Versus LOS219

Another View of Car Costs221

Contribution221

How Performance Measures Affect Decisions222

Variability in the Car Cycle222

Unreliability in Loaded and Empty Moves223

Car Inventory223

17 The Kwon Model——Power，Freight Car Fleet Size，and Service Priorities：A Simulation Application225

Power，Freight Car Fleet Size，and Service Priorities225

Power Selection226

Car Fleet Sizing227

Train Makeup Rules227

Makeup Rule 1227

Makeup Rule 2228

Makeup Rule 3228

Comparing the Rules229

Service for Traffic of Different Priority230

Do You Want to Improve Service？231

Allocating Capacity231

A Nonequilibrium Analysis232

Investment Strategies：Closed System Assumption233

Allocating Costs to Priority Classes234

Simulation Modeling234

Simulation versus Probabilistic Analysis236

References237

18 Measuring Origin-Destination Service and Other Rail Issues239

Measuring Origin-Destination Service239

Schedule Adherence240

Very Bad Trips240

“X”-Day Percent240

Other Rail Issues241

Empty Freight Car Distribution241

Factors in Movements of Empty Cars242

Car Ownership242

Per Diem243

Clearing House244

Interline Moves244

Mergers245

Parallel and End-to-End Mergers245

Power Distribution246

Maintenance246

Types of Service247

General Merchandise Service247

Intermodal Service247

Bulk Commodities248

Safety248

Final Comments on Rail249

Reference249

19 Trucking251

Trucking251

Publicly-Owned Infrastructure251

Trucking Cost Structure252

Truckload Operation（TL）252

Load-Screening253

TL Markets254

Intermodal Partnerships255

Less-Than-Truckload Operation（LTL）256

LTL Networks257

LTL Carriers258

Regional Versus National LTL258

New Trucking Technologies259

Automatic Vehicle Location259

In-Transit Visibility259

Weigh-in-Motion259

Paperless Transaction260

Private Carriage260

20 Ocean Shipping，International Freight，and Freight Summary261

Ocean Shipping261

Ocean Shipping Services：Wet Bulk And Dry Bulk261

Environmental Issues and Risk Assessment262

The Liner Trade263

Containerization264

Conferences264

Liner Decisions265

Economies of Scale265

Operating Speed and Cost265

Service Frequency266

Empty Repositioning of Containers266

Intermodalism and International Freight Flows266

International Trade Patterns267

Port Operations269

Port Capacity269

Dredging270

Intermodal Productivity270

The Total Transportation Company270

Information Technology270

Toward a National Intermodal System272

Air Freight272

Cost/LOS Trade-Offs for Various Modes273

Freight Summary273

Key Factors274

Vehicle-Cycle274

Vehicles And Infrastructure274

The Market274

Operating Plans and Strategic Plans275

The 30 Key Points275

Reference275

PART Ⅲ：Traveler Transportation277

21 Traveler Transportation：Introduction279

Traveler Transportation279

Differences Between Traveler and Freight Transportation279

The Transportation Process279

Safety and Security280

Level-Of-Service Variables280

Groups281

Motivation for Travel281

Travel as Discretionary282

Success in the Marketplace282

Substitutability of Communications and Transportation283

Traveler Transportation Statistics285

Mode Choice：The Dominance of Cars in the United States285

Land Use and Highways286

Suburbanization286

A Brief History of Metropolitan Areas287

Commuter Lines and Garden Cities288

Mega-Cities290

Ring-Roads290

Edge City291

Land Use and Public Transportation291

Multidisciplinary Approach292

The New Transportation Professional293

References293

22 Commuting，Nonwork Travel and Safety，and Some Transportation History295

Commuting295

Suburb-to-Suburb Commutes295

Public Transportation296

Nonwork Travel296

Intercity Travel298

International Travel300

Safety by Mode300

Some Transportation History302

What Enabled Transportation to Advance？303

Technological Developments303

Automobile Dominance304

The Gas Tax304

Construction Jobs305

The Transportation Industry305

Environmental Concerns305

23 Traveler Level-of-Service307

Traveler Level-of-Service307

Why People Like Cars307

Traveler LOS Variables309

Average Trip Time，Reliability of Trip Time309

Value-of-Time309

Aggregating Small Time Savings Over Many People310

Other LOS Variables：Cost310

Service Frequency310

Waiting Time311

Comfort311

Safety and Security311

Intangibles312

Mode Choice312

Trip Purpose312

Modal Options312

Heirarchical Decision-Making314

Long-Range Choices314

Medium-Range Choices314

Short-Range Choices314

References315

24 Intelligent Transportation Systems（ITS）317

Introduction317

History317

The ITS-4 Technologies319

ISTEA320

The Strategic Plan320

Technology，Systems and Institutions321

Functional Areas In ITS321

Advanced Transportation Management Systems（ATMS）321

Incident Management322

Electronic Toll and Traffic Management（ETTM）322

Congestion Pricing——Revisited323

The Philosophy of Highway Network Control324

Advanced Traveler Information Systems（ATIS）324

Advanced Vehicle Control Systems（AVCS）324

Commercial Vehicle Operations（CVO）325

Advanced Public Transportation Systems（APTS）325

Advanced Rural Transportation Systems（ARTS）326

A Broad Systemic Approach327

Institutional Issues327

Public-Private Partnerships327

Organizational Change328

Transportation and Change329

Changes Resulting From the Interstate329

Changes Resulting From ITS330

The Post-Strategic Plan Period331

Regional Deployment：A Strategic Vision332

References333

25 The Urban Transportation Planning Process and Real-Time Network Control335

Networks335

The Urban Transportation Planning Process335

Choosing the Number and Size of zones336

Trip Generation337

Trip Distribution337

Mode Split337

Assignment337

User-Equilibrium338

System-Equilibrium339

Network Planning340

Networks and ITS341

Real-Time Network Management341

Why the Tactical Problem is Hard342

Ashok Formulation343

Some Research Ideas345

Value of Perfect Predictions345

The Link Between Prediction and Control Methods345

Formal Problem Statement345

Research Direction 1346

Research Direction 2347

Research Direction 3347

26 Traffic Signals and Other Control Measures349

Traffic349

Traffic Light Synchronization349

Optimizing Traffic Light Settings350

Traffic Light Synchronization：Levels Of Sophistication351

The Minus-One Alternative：Mystic Valley Parkway351

Static Synchronization351

Time-of-Day Settings351

Predefined Plans352

Dynamic Systems352

Gating and Draining353

Other Traffic Control Ideas353

Ramp Metering354

Dedicated Bus Lanes354

Reversible Lanes355

High-Occupancy Vehicle Lanes355

High-Occupancy Toll Lanes355

Traffic Calming356

27 Deterministic Queuing357

Deterministic Queuing Applied to Traffic Lights357

Deterministic Queuing357

Queuing Diagram358

Computing Total Delay360

Choosing Capacity360

A Word on Probabilistic Queuing361

A Traffic Light as a Deterministic Queue362

Queuing Diagram for a Traffic Light363

Queue Stability363

Delay At A Traffic Signal：Considering One Direction364

Two Direction Analysis of Traffic Light365

Delay At A Traffic Signal：Considering Two Directions366

Choosing an optimum366

Optimal R1367

Some Special Cases368

28 Urban Public Transportation373

Urban Public Transportation373

LOS Variables For Urban Travelers373

How Public Transportation Measures Up373

Accessibility to Service374

Types of Urban Public Transportation Service375

Conventional Bus375

Para-Transit375

Demand-Responsive Service376

Rail Systems376

Subways376

Commuter Rail377

Intermodal Services377

Public Transportation Patronage377

Importance of Bus Services379

Temporal Peaking and Its Implications379

Characteristics Of The Public Transportation Industry：A Personal View380

Life-Cycle Costing382

Wear-and-Tear and Maintenance383

The Problem With Deferred Maintenance383

Quality of Infrastructure and LOS385

The Vicious Cycle386

Service Design386

Network Structure386

The Vehicle Cycle387

A Simple Example387

Bus-Bunching：An Explanation388

The Vicious Cycle：Another Example389

Control Strategies389

Holding trains390

Station-skipping390

Short-turning390

Need for Real-time Information391

ITS—Public Transportation Applications391

Intermodal Transfers391

Traveler Information Through ITS392

Fares，Ridership，and Finance392

Various Demand Functions393

Linear Demand393

Parabolic Demand Curve394

“Real” Demand Function395

Equity395

Air Quality396

Vicious Cycle396

Some Other Approaches396

Conclusion：Public Transportation397

References397

29 Intercity Traveler Transportation：Air399

Intercity Traveler Transportation399

Air Traveler Transportation：A Brief History399

The Wright Brothers399

Airmail and the Kelly Act399

World War Ⅱ400

Post-World War Ⅱ400

Commercial Jet Service401

The Eastern Shuttle401

Wide-Bodies401

Airline Costs401

Regulation402

Reasons for Air Industry Financial Problems402

Air Traveler Transportation and the 30 Key Points403

Stochasticity403

Peaking in Demand404

Selecting Capacity404

Network Behavior404

Land-Side Issues405

Airport Access405

LOS Implications406

Proximity of Airport to Center City406

Rail Access to Airports407

Airport Terminal Design407

Airports as Commercial Centers408

Important Air Issues408

Airport Capacity408

Congestion Pricing at Airports408

Hub-and-Spoke Airline Operations409

Hub-and-Spoke as a Cost/LOS Trade-Off409

Hub-and-Spoke Operations and System Stability410

Network Control：Ground Holds411

Safety411

Aircraft Technology412

Aircraft Size412

Short Take-Off and Landing Aircraft413

Hypersonic Flight413

The Space Plane414

Engine and Materials Technology414

Airplanes as a United States Export Industry414

Yield Management in Air Transportation414

Air Transportation as an Example of Subsidies415

Frequent Flyer Programs416

Subsidies Resumed416

Does Society-at-Large Benefit Enough to Warrant the Subsidy？417

Reference419

30 Intercity Traveler Transportation：Rail421

Rail Traveler Transportation421

Rail Terminal Locations：An Advantage421

Trains：A Surface Mode422

The Problem：Speed422

The United States：A Big Country423

Noise Impact423

United States National Transportation Policy and Passenger Rail424

United StatesIntercity Transportation Investment by the Public Sector425

Strong Modal Orientation426

Rail Passenger Data：An Historical Perspective426

Amtrak428

International Systems429

Technology for High-Speed Rail430

The Cost of Speed431

Incremental High-Speed Rail432

Mag-Lev433

Mag-Lev Service Concepts434

Incremental High-Speed Rail：Resumed435

Operations Issues for Incremental High-Speed Rail435

Amtrak Funding and Structure437

Perspectives of Freight Railroads on Passenger Service438

Capacity438

Liability438

Cost-Sharing and Cost-Allocation439

Growth Path for Incremental High-Speed Rail439

The 30 Key Points and Traveler Transportation440

References441

Afterword443

Bibliography445

1.General Transportation and Modeling445

2.Transportation Demand and Economics446

3.Transportation Statistics446

4.Highways/Automotive446

5.Intelligent Transportation Systems（ITS）447

6.Public Transportation447

7.Urban Transportation，Form and Issues448

8.Passenger Rail449

9.Airports449

10.Freight：Railroads and Trucking450

11.Maritime Freight450

12.Intermodal Freight450

13.Regional Transportation Issues451

14.Transportation in Developing Countries451

15.Sustainable Transportation/ Energy451

16.Transportation Technology452

17.Transportation Organizations/Governance/Institutions452

18.History of Transportation453

19.Management/Economic Trends and Ideas453

About the Author455

Index457