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1 Introduction1

1．1 Sociolinguistics1

1．1．1 A description1

1．1．2 Sociolinguistics and linguistics2

1．1．3 Sociolinguistics and the sociology of language4

1．2．1 An imaginary world5

1．2 Sociolinguistic phenomena5

1．2．2 A real but exotic world6

Preface by Halliday9

1．2．3 A real and familiar world9

1．3 Speakers and communities10

1．3．1 Conformity and individualism10

王宗炎序10

导读13

1．3．2 The sociolinguistic development of the child14

1．4 Summary and conclusions17

2 Varieties of language20

2．1 Introduction20

2．1．1 Global and specific statements20

2．1．2 Linguistic items21

Preface to the second edition22

2．1．3 Varieties of language22

2．1．4 ‘Speech communities’24

Preface to the first edition24

2．2 Languages30

2．2．1 ‘Language’and ‘dialect’30

2．2．2 Standard languages32

2．2．3 The delimitation of languages34

2．2．4 The family tree model37

2．3 Dialects38

2．3．1 Regional dialects and isoglosses38

2．3．2 Diffusion and the wave theory39

2．3．3 Social dialects41

2．3．4 Types of linguistic item43

2．4 Registers45

2．4．1 Registers and dialects45

2．4．2 Diglossia49

2．5 Mixture of varieties51

2．5．1 Code-switching51

2．5．2 Code-mixing53

2．5．3 Borrowing55

2．5．4 Pidgins59

2．5．5 Crevles63

2．6 Conclusions68

3 Language，culture and thought70

3．1 Introduction70

3．1．1 Culture71

3．1．2 Thought72

3．1．3 Language，culture and thought78

3．2 Linguistic and cultural relativity81

3．2．1 Semantic relativity81

3．2．2 Prototypes85

3．2．3 Basic-level concepts88

3．2．4 Conclusions90

3．3 Language and thought91

3．3．1 Language and socialisation91

3．3．2 The Sapir-Whorfhypothesis95

3．3．3 Sexism in the language system102

3．4 General conclusions104

4 Speech as social interaction106

4．1 The social nature of speech106

4．1．1 Introduction106

4．1．2 The classification of speech109

4．1．3 Speech as skilled work112

4．1．4 The norms governing speech116

4．1．5 Conclusion119

4．2 Speech as a signal of social identity120

4．2．1 Non-relational social categories120

4．2．2 Power and solidarity122

4．2．3 Linguistic signals of power and solidarity127

4．3 The structure of speech132

4．3．1 Entries and exits132

4．3．2 Other kinds of structure in speech134

4．4 Verbal and non-verbal behaviour136

4．4．1 Relation-markers136

4．4．2 Structure-markers138

4．4．3 Content-markers139

4．5 Male/female differences in speech140

5．1 Introduction144

5．1．1 The scope of quantitative studies of speech144

5 The quantitative study of speech144

5．1．2 Why study speech quantitatively?148

5．2 Methodology150

5．2．1 Problems of methodology150

5．2．2 An example：New York155

5．2．3 An example：Novwich159

5．2．4 An example：Belfast163

5．2．5 An example：Cardiff164

5．2．6 An example：Detroit166

5．3 Linguistic variables169

5．3．1 Types of variable169

5．3．2 Calculating scores for texts175

5．3．3 Calculating scores for individuals and groups177

5．4 Influences on linguistic variables181

5．4．1 Linguistic context181

5．4．2 The speaker s group membership184

5．4．3 The speaker s degree of group membership190

5．4．4 The speaker s sex193

5．4．5 The situation and style199

5．5 Summary201

6 Linguistic and social inequality203

6．1 Linguistic inequality203

6．1．1 Introduction203

6．1．2 Three types of linguistic inequality205

6．2 Subjective inequality206

6．2．1 Language-based prejudice206

6．2．2 Evaluation of language209

6．2．3 Stereotypes and how to study them211

6．2．4 Prejudice of teachers216

6．2．5 Prejudice of pupils217

6．3 Linguistic incompetence：strictly linguistic inequality220

6．4 Communicative incompetence：inequality in communication224

7．1 Introduction228

7 Theoretical summary228

7．2 The social functions of language230

7．2．1 Face230

7．2．2 Solidarity and accommodation232

7．2．3 Networks and multiple models234

7．2．4 Social types and acts of identity237

7．2．5 Power240

7．2．6 Analogue relationships and variability241

7．3．1 Background243

7．3 The structure of language243

7．3．2 The history of the isolation of language244

7．3．3 Evidence against the isolation of language245

7．3．4 Two further sources of variability248

7．3．5 Implications for theories of language structure252

Bibliography258

Index271

文库索引280