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Introduction1

Reading and Writing Processes1

Reading Process1

Reading for Comprehension2

Reading for Thinking3

Reading for Usage Standards4

Reading for Rhetorical Modes5

Writing Process7

Prewriting7

Generating Ideas7

Invention of Generating Ideas8

Reading8

Questions about Readers9

Listing and Brainstorming10

Mapping and Clustering12

Journalist s Questions13

Freewriting14

Imitation14

Outlining15

Developing a Thesis Statement18

Drafting20

Paragraphs20

Methods of Developing and Arranging Paragraphs and Essays21

Introduction，Conclusion and Titles22

Revising23

Reading as a Reader23

Applying a Checklist24

Getting Feedback from Others26

Editing27

Proof Reading28

Chapter 129

Narration: How to Tell a Story29

1．Plan Your Narrative30

2．Decide on Your Point of View30

3．Make a Point31

4．Include Only Significant Details32

5．Pace Your Narrative32

6．Use Consistent Verb Terrse33

7．Use Dialogs33

8．Use Transitions34

A Student Essay34

A Vacation with My Mother34

Analysis38

Ever Green（Janice Anderson）40

“I Just Wanna Be Average”（Mike Rose）47

The Saturday Evening Post（Russell Baker）60

Chapter 274

Description: How to Explore through the Senses74

1．Focus on a Dominant Impression75

2．Use Images in Your Descriptions76

3．Appeal to All the Reader s Senses77

4．Use Strong Action Verbs79

5．Use Specific Nouns80

6．Use Comparisons and Figurative Expressions81

A Student Essay84

Growing up with Fluffy84

Analysis86

Grandma s House（A Student）89

The Pines（John McPhee）94

The Joy Luck Club（Amy Tan）104

Chapter 3115

Exemplification: How to Illustrate Ideas115

1．Find Your Examples before You Begin Writing117

2．Give Appropriate Examples Only118

3．Use Different Kinds of Examples118

4．Provide Transitions and Vary the Introduction to Your Examples120

A Student Essay121

Mom and Dad s Holiday Metamorphosis to Poppa and Granny121

Analysis124

Illusions in Nature（Henry Bastone）126

Darkness at Noon（Harold Krents）133

My Friend，Albert Einstein（Banesh Hoffmann）139

Chapter 4150

Explaining Process: How to Explain Step by Step150

1．Begin with a Clear Statement of What You Are Explaining151

2．Make Each Step of the Process Clear153

3．Identify the Level of Knowledge and Needs of Your Reader153

4．Use Specific Details and Vivid Descriptions153

A Student Essay154

Follow the Simple Directions154

Analysis156

Ditch Diving（Tom Bodett）158

How to Hunt，Clean and Cook a Pheasant-（Robert F。Hanika）163

How to Mark a Book（Mortimer Adler）170

Chapter 5181

Division and Classification: How to Find Categories181

1．Choose a Single Principle for the Classification182

2．Keep Your Categories Intact and Separate183

3．Make the Classification Complete184

4．Give Equal Space to Equal Entries184

A Student Essay185

People on the Slopes185

Analysis187

Four Types of Children（Christine Lavoie）188

Cinematypes（Susan Allen Toth）194

Kinds of Discipline（John Holt）201

Chapter 6210

Comparison and Contrast: How to Discover Similarities and Differences210

1．Choose the Basis of Your Comparison/Contrast210

2．Plan Your Comparison and Contrast Essay212

3．Analogy215

4．Use Words and Phrases That Clearly Draw a Comparison/Contrast215

5．Deal Fairly and Equally with Both Sides216

A Student Essay216

Dormitory Chef216

Analysis218

The Confessions of a Househusband（Jim Sanderson）219

That Lean and Hungry Look（Suzanne Britt Jordan）225

Other Cultures，Other Times（Ann McGee-Cooper）231

Chapter 7 Definition239

How to Limit the Frame of Reference239

A Student Essay245

The Perfect Yuppie245

Analysis248

Why I Want a Wife（Judy Syfers）249

Love: The Right Chemistry（Anastasia Toufexis）254

The Taste of Evil（Mark Baker）262

Chapter 8 Cause and Effect267

How to Trace Reasons and Results267

1．Purpose and Audience268

2．How to Write Your Essay with Cause and Effect268

3．Make a Specific Plan of Your Essay269

4．Set Your Goal271

5．Pitfalls272

A Student Essay273

Why Students Drop Out of College273

Analysis276

Why We Crave Horror Movies（Stephen King）277

Responsible Choices（Coral Watercott）283

Black Men and Public Space（Brent Staples）290

Chapter 9 Argumentation298

How to Incite People to Thought or Action298

1．Goals of Persuasion298

2．Persuasive Appeals299

3．Supporting Your Argument303

A Student Essay308

More Testing，More Learning308

Analysis315

The Wretched of the Hearth（Barbara Ehrenreich）317

A Hard Lesson in Smoking s Danger（Jean Warren）323

Children Need To Play，Not Compete（Jessica Statsky）328

Addendum336

Writers on Writing336

When You Write（Annie Dillard）336

How to Write an Essay（Gilbert Highet）338

How to Write with Style（Kurt Vaonnegut）346

Revising（Donald Hall）350

A Writer s Handbook357

Revising Words357

1．Eliminate redundancies．357

2．Avoid unnecessary repetition of words．357

3．Cut empty or inflated phrases．358

4．Simplify the structure．358

5．Reduce clauses to phrases，phrases to single words．359

Revising Sentences360

Coordination and Subordination360

1．Combine choppy sentences．361

2．Avoid ineffective coordination．361

3．Do not subordinate major ideas．362

4．Do not subordinate excessively．362

Balance Parallel Ideas363

1．Balance parallel ideas linked with coordinating conjunctions．363

2．Balance parallel ideas linked with correlative conjunctions．364

3．Balance comparisons linked with than or as．364

4．Repeat function words to clarify parallels．365

Add Needed Words365

1．Add words needed to complete compound structures．365

2．Add words needed to make comparisons logical and complete．366

Untangle Mixed Constructions366

1．Untangle the grammatical structure．366

2．Straighten out the logical connections．367

3．Avoid is．．．when，is．．．where，and reason is ．．．because constructions．367

Repair Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers367

1．Put limiting modifiers in front of the words they modify．368

2．Position phrases and clauses so that readers can see at aglance what they modify．368

3．Repairing dangling modifiers．368

Eliminate Distracting Shifts369

1．Make the point of view consistent in person and number．369

2．Maintain consistent verb tenses．369

3．Make verbs consistent in mood and voice．370

Provide Some Variety371

1．Use a variety of sentence openings．371

2．Use a variety of sentence structures．371

3．Try inverting sentences occasionally．371

Editing for Grammar372

Repair Sentence Fragments372

1．Attach fragmented subordinate clauses or turn them into sentences．372

2．Attach fragmented phrases of turn them into sentences．373

3．Attach other fragmented word groups or turn them into sentences．373

Revise Comma Splices374

1．Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction．374

2．Use a semicolon（or，if appropriate，use a colon）．374

3．Make the clauses into separate sentences．375

4．Restructure the sentence，perhaps by subordinating one of the clauses．375

Make Subjects and Verbs Agree376

1．Make the verb agree with its subject，not with a word that comes between．376

2．Treat most compound subjects connected by and as plural．376

3．With compound subjects connected by or or nor，make the verb agree with the part of the subject nearer to the verb．377

4．Treat most indefinite pronouns as singular．377

5．Treat collective nouns as singular unless the meaning is clearly plural．378

6．Make the verb agree with its subject even when the subject follows the verb．378

7．Make the verb agree with its subject，not with a subject complement．379

8．Who，which，and that take verbs that agree with their antecedents．379

Make Pronouns and Antecedents Agree379

1．Do not use plural pronouns to refer to singular antecedents．379

2．Treat most indefinite pronouns as singular．380

Make Pronoun Reference Clear380

1．Avoid ambiguous or remote pronoun reference．380

2．Avoid the vague use of this，that，and which．380

Choose Verbs with Care381

1．Use the correct forms of irregular verbs．381

2．Distinguish among the forms of lie and lay．381

3．Use the present tense when writing about literature and when expressing general truths．381

4．Use the past perfect tense for an action already completed by the time of another past action．382

5．Use appropriate sequence of tenses with infinitives and participles．382

6．Use subjunctive mood in if clauses expressing conditions contrary to fact and in that clauses following verbs such as ask，insist，recommend，request，suggest，and wish．382

7．Prefer the active voice．383

Bibliography384