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Introduction1

Part One:Kinds of Clauses5

Chapter Ⅰ:The Coordinate Clause5

(A)Coordinators5

(B)Conjuncts15

(C)Omission of coordinator in absence of conjunct18

(D)Relative clause to serve as coordinate clause20

(E)Ellipsis in coordinate clause20

Chapter Ⅱ:The Relative Clause25

i.The Relative Pronoun25

(A)Attributives28

ii.Attributives and the Defining Relative Clause28

(B)Attributives replaceable by relative clauses29

iii.Omission of Relative Pronoun31

(A)Omission of relative pronoun as object31

(B)Omission of relative pronoun as subject or predicative33

iv.The Preferred Relative Pronoun in a Given Case34

(A)When antecedent is personal and pronoun is subject34

(B)When verb in relative clause is“be”35

(C)If personal antecedent is not personally identifiable by name36

(D)When phrases intervene between antecedent and relative pronoun36

(E)When subject of relative clause is rather complex36

(H)After an adjective in the superlative degree37

(F)When personal pronoun is subject of relative clause37

(G)After“those”,whether pronoun or adjective37

(I)After most indefinite pronouns38

(J)In the emphatic mechanism“It is…”38

(K)When personal and impersonal antecedents share one relative38

(L)Personal relative for pet animal39

(M)Non-personal relative for human babies39

(N)Relative pronoun for ship always nonpersonal39

(O)When antecedent is a collective noun39

v.Special Relative Pronouns40

(A)“What”(also“whatever”)40

(B)“Whoever”and“whichever”41

(C)“As”following“such”or“as”or“the same”42

(D)“Than”following“more”premodifying a noun43

(E)“But”meaning“who not”or“which not”46

vi.The Non-Defining Relative Clause46

(A)Nature of non-defining relative clause46

(B)Contrasts between non-defining and defining relative clauses48

(C)Points to note about non-defining relative clauses50

(D)Clause as antecedent to“which”or“as”50

(E)“As”relative versus“as”conjunctive54

(A)Correspondence between defining relative clause and nonfinite postmodifier56

vii.The Relative Clause and the Non-Finite Postmodifier56

(B)Correspondence between nondefining relative clause and nonfinite postmodifier60

viii.The Relative Adjective63

(A)What63

(B)Which64

ix.The Relative Phrase67

(A)The infinitive phrase containing a relative pronoun as object67

(B)The gerund having a relative pronoun as object67

(C)The simple prepositional phrase containing a relative pronoun as object68

(D)The complex prepositional phrase with a relative pronoun as object70

(E)The non-personal possessive relative phrase71

(A)Classes of relative adverbs72

(F)The simple prepositional phrase containing a relative adjective and a noun72

x.The Relative Adverb72

(B)Defining and non-defining relative clauses78

xi.The Compound Relative Adverb78

xii.The Special Relative Adverb“The”80

xiii.Relative or Interrogative?83

xiv.The Rule of Proximity86

(A)Priority of relative pronoun86

(B)Repetition of antecedent88

(A)Direct speech and indirect speech90

i.Direct Narration and Indirect Narration90

Chapter Ⅲ:The Object Clause90

(B)Direct question and indirect question101

ii.The Object Clause108

(A)Objects to verbs108

(B)Objects to prepositions115

Chapter Ⅳ: Noun Clauses Other than the Object Clause120

(A)The subject clause120

(B)The predicative clause122

(C)The appositive clause124

(D)The noun clause as object complement128

(A)Temporal subordinators129

Chapter Ⅴ:The Temporal Clause129

(B)Some general remarks about temporal clauses138

Chapter Ⅵ:The Causal Clause143

(A)“Because”:when and how used143

(B)“As”:when and how used144

(C)“Because”,“as”and“since”compared144

(D)“For”and“because”145

(E)Non-defining relative clause as causal clause146

(F)Participial phrase replacing causal clause146

(G)Predicative adjective or noun positioned at beginning of sentence147

(H)Prepositional phrase replacing causal clause148

(I)Negative before“because”clause149

(J)Wrong use of“because”clause as noun clause150

(K)Occasional ellipsis in causal clause150

Chapter Ⅶ:The Manner Clause152

(A)Manner subordinators152

(B)“Like”as manner subordinator154

(C)Special expressions155

(D)Ellipsis after“as”or“as if”156

Chapter Ⅷ:The Conditional Clause157

(A)Conditional Clause introduced by“if”:indicative and subjunctive compared157

(B)Conditional clauses introduced by“suppose”and“supposing”161

(C)Condition introduced by“provided(that)”and negative condition by“unless”162

(D)Condition expressed by imperative mood followed by“and”clause165

(E)Condition expressed by verbless clause followed by“and”clause166

(F)Relative clause as conditional clause166

(G)Participial phrase in lieu of conditional clause167

(H)Condition expressed by“in case”167

(I)Prepositional phrases in lieu of conditional clauses168

Chapter Ⅸ:The Purpose Clause170

Chapter Ⅹ:The Result Clause174

Chapter Ⅺ:The Concessive Clause187

(A)Concessive clause introduced by“though”or“although”187

(B)Concessive clause introduced by“even if”,“even though”or“if”188

(C)When predicative positioned initially,“though”replaceable by“as”190

(D)Question words ending in-ever are also used to introduce concessive clauses191

(E)“No matter”or“it doesn’t matter”+the question word itself to express concession193

(F)Alternative concessive clause introduced by“whether”194

(G)Concessive clause introduced by“while”194

(H)Some fixed expressions195

(I)Concession expressed by certain prepositions195

Chapter Ⅻ:The Comparative Clause197

(A)Ways of expressing comparison197

(B)“Than”differently parsed206

(C)Incomplete,inconsistent or illogical comparisons207

(D)Comparative element and comparative clause209

(E)Missing element in comparative clause211

Chapter ⅩⅢ:The Proportional Clause215

(A)Overt proportion215

(B)Covert proportion216

(C)Proportion expressed by correlative items“the…the”216

Chapter ⅩⅣ:The Comment Clause218

(A)Definition and nature of comment clause218

(B)Comment clause versus main clause219

(C)Comment clause in interrogative sentence220

(D)Relative clause as comment clause222

(E)Elaborate comment clauses223

Chapter ⅩⅤ:The Focal Clause225

(A)Sentence:ordinary form versus emphatic form225

(B)Applicability of adverbials as foci226

(C)The connective used after focal clause229

Closing Remarks on Part One233

Part Two:Coordination and Subordination of Ideas235

Preliminary Remarks235

Chapter ⅩⅥ:Combination of Simple Sentences by Coordination238

Exercise(18 sets of sentences)240

Chapter ⅩⅦ:Combination of Simple Sentences by Relatives244

Exercise(15 sets of sentences)245

Chapter ⅩⅧ:Subordination of One of Two Simple Sentences into a Noun Clause248

Exercise(23 sets of sentences)249

Chapter ⅩⅨ:Subordination of One of Two Simple Sentences into an Adverbial Clause252

Exercise(29 sets of sentences)254

Chapter ⅩⅩ:Coordination and Subordination Occurring in the Same Sentence257

Exercise(27 sets of sentences)260

Chapter: ⅩⅪ:Subordination of One of Two Simple Sentences into a Phrase265

Exercise(a)—by using participles(12 sets of sentences)267

Exercise(b)—by using absolute phrases(12 sets of sentences)269

Exercise(c)—by using prepositions with nouns or gerunds(19 sets of sentences)270

Exercise(d)—by using infinitives(14 sets of sentences)272

Exercise(e)—by using nouns or phrases in apposition(5 sets of sentences)273

Exercise(f)—by using adverbs or adverbial phrases(18 sets of sentences)274

Exercise(g)—by miscellaneous methods(43 sets of sentences)276

Exercise(h)—by subordinating in as many ways as possible(9 sets of sentences)280

Chapter ⅩⅫ:Coordination Versus Subordination282

Exercise For(a)—10 sentences283

Exercise For(b)—9 sentences284

Exercise For(c)—10 sentences285

Exercise For(d)—10 sentences286

Chapter ⅩⅪⅡ:Complicated Subordination288

Exercise(a)—Combine into one complex sentence(13 sets of sentences)291

Exercise(b)—Rewrite to show proper subordination and coordination(8 sentences)294

Exercise(c)—Rewrite by using subordination as far as possible(4 paragraphs or sentence groups)295

Appendices299

Appendix299

1—Key to Exercise in Chapter ⅩⅥ299

2—Key to Exercise in Chapter ⅩⅦ302

3—Key to Exercise in Chapter ⅩⅤⅢ303

4—Key to Exercise in Chapter ⅩⅨ305

5—Key to Exercise in Chapter ⅩⅩ308

6—Keys to Exercises in Chapter ⅩⅪ(Exercises(a)to(h))311

7—Keys to Exercises in Chapter ⅩⅫ(Exercises for(a)to(d))325

8—Keys to Exercises in Chapter ⅩⅩⅢ(Exercises(a)to(c))328