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INTRODUCTION．Nature of the Scientific Process1

1．What is Science？1

2．Origins of the Scientific Tradition2

Ⅰ．RISE OF MENTAL COHERENCE．The Foundations：Mesopotamia，Egypt，Ionia，Magna Graecia，Athens，to c．400 B．C6

1．First Systematization of Knowledge6

2．Beginnings of Ionian Science and the Eastern Greek School12

3．Pythagoreans and the Western Greek School22

4．Fathers of Athenian Science31

Ⅱ．THE GREAT ADVENTURE．Unitary Systems of Thought：Athens，400-300 B．C38

1．Plato and the Academy38

2．Aristotle45

3．Peripatetics，Stoics，and Epicureans56

Ⅲ．THE SECOND ADVENTURE．Divorce of Science and Philosophy：Alexandria(300 B．C．-A．D．200)62

1．Early Alexandrian Period(300-200 B．C．)62

2．Archimedes．Rise of Mechanics69

3．Middle Alexandrian Period 200-c．30B．C75

4．Late Alexandrian Period to A．D．20085

(ⅰ)Physical and Mathematical Knowledge85

(ⅱ)Ptolemy．Astronomy and Geography89

(ⅲ)Late Alexandrian Biology98

(ⅳ)Late Alexandrian Alchemy101

Ⅳ．THE FAILURE OF INSPIRATION．Science the Handmaid of Practice：Imperial Rome(50 B．C．-A．D．400)103

1．Development of the Roman Attitude to Nature103

2．Geography and Imperialism108

3．Imperial Organization of Medicine and Hygiene114

4．Roman Mathematical，Mechanical，and Calendarial Science121

5．Roman Astronomy and Astrology126

6．Passage from Pagan to Christian Thought131

Ⅴ．THE FAILURE OF KNOWLEDGE．The Middle Ages：Theology，Queen of the Sciences(c．A．D．400-c．1400)137

1．The Dark Age in the West(400-1000)137

2．Science in the Orient(750-1200)140

(ⅰ)Byzantines and Moslems140

(ⅱ)Alchemy in Eastern Islam144

(ⅲ)Medicine in Eastern Islam147

(ⅳ)Mathematics and Astronomy in Eastern Islam148

(ⅴ)Physics in Eastern Islam151

(ⅵ)Science in Western Islam154

3．Oriental Penetration of the Occident to c．1100156

4．Mechanism of Translation from Arabic to Latin158

5．Early Western Translators from Arabic(1100-1300)162

6．Scholasticism and Science(1200-1400)164

7．Some Main Personalities of Scholastic Science169

8．Status of Medieval Science175

9．Medieval Science and Useful Arts178

Ⅵ．REVIVAL OF LEARNING．Rise of Humanism：Attempted Return to Antiquity(1250-1600)188

1．Humanism188

2．Printing of the Ancient Scientific Classics193

3．Scientific Atmosphere of the Early Renaissance196

4．Practical Arts in the Sixteenth Century200

5．Encyclopaedic Naturalists of the Sixteenth Century207

6．Anatomy and Physiology in the Sixteenth Century210

7．Astronomical Observation and Hypothesis in the Sixteenth Century212

Ⅶ．THE INSURGENT CENTURY．Downfall of Aristotle(1600-1700)：New Attempts at Synthesis218

1．Doctrine of the Infinite Universe218

2．Mathematics becomes the Instrument of Physical Investigation223

3．Physico-Mathematical Synthesis230

4．Kepler＇s re-formation of the Heavens236

5．Galileo＇s Astronomical Discoveries242

6．Some Philosophical Implications of Galileo＇s Views246

7．Some Physical Implications of the Galilean Revolution249

8．Prophets of Science259

9．Character and Conduct of Matter268

10．Mechanical Concepts in Biology274

(ⅰ)First Application of Physics to Physiology274

(ⅱ)The Physiological Sects279

(ⅲ)The Classical Microscopists and Spontaneous Generation282

Ⅷ．THE MECHANICAL WORLD．Enthronement of Determinism(1700-1850)288

1．The Newtonian Key to the Mathematics of the Heavens288

2．Morphology of the Universe297

(ⅰ)Observational Astronomy298

(ⅱ)Dynamical Astronomy309

(ⅲ)Astrophysics314

3．Terrestrial Globe316

(ⅰ)Measurement of the Earth and Cartography316

(ⅱ)Wind，Water，and Terrestrial Magnetism321

(ⅲ)Early Views of Earth-History325

(ⅳ)Stratigraphy329

4．Transformations of Matter332

(ⅰ)Rise of Quantitative Method332

(ⅱ)Intensive Study of Chemical Reaction335

(ⅲ)Gases337

(ⅳ)The Elements339

(ⅴ)Atomism341

(ⅵ)Molecular Theory344

5．Transformations of Forces347

(ⅰ)The Imponderables347

(ⅱ)Temperature Measurement348

(ⅲ)Heat a Mode of Motion350

(ⅳ)Static Electricity353

(ⅴ)First Study of Current Electricity355

(ⅵ)Electromagnetism358

(ⅶ)The Dynamo361

(ⅷ)The Magneto-Electric Field364

(ⅸ)Undulatory Theory367

(ⅹ)Doctrine of Energy375

6．Biology becomes Systematized378

(ⅰ)Early Classificatory Systems378

(ⅱ)Main Subdivisions of Biological Study382

(ⅲ)Naturphilosophie384

(ⅳ)Correlation of Parts391

(ⅴ)Distribution of Living Things395

7．Physical Interpretation of the Living Organism402

(ⅰ)Beginnings of Modern Physiology402

(ⅱ)Foundations of Bionomics406

(ⅲ)Cell Theory410

(ⅳ)Protoplasm414

Ⅸ．CULMINATION OF THE MECHANICAL VIEW OF THE WORLD(c．1850-c．1900)417

1．Note on Delimitation of the Period417

2．Nature of the Galilean-Newtonian Revolution418

3．Physics422

(ⅰ)Sound422

(ⅱ)Heat422

(ⅲ)Optics427

(ⅳ)Electromagnetism432

(ⅴ)Spectroscopy438

4．Astronomy441

5．Chemistry453

6．Mechanization of Biology461

(ⅰ)Microbiology461

(ⅱ)Embryology and Embryogenesis470

(ⅲ)Rise of Genetics483

(ⅳ)Physiological Synthesis490

(ⅴ)Evolution500

(ⅵ)The Turn of the Century515

INDEX517